Animal Sciences

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Research from the Department of Animal Sciences. The department website may be found at https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/ansc

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2015 National Pork Retail Benchmarking Study
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Bachmeier, Laura Anne
The objective of this study was to quantify pork quality variation in the retail self-serve meat case nationwide. Center-cut loin chops (CCLC) (n=3795) were analyzed in-store for subjective color and marbling scores (2.85 and 2.30). Means for enhanced (EN) and non-enhanced (NON) CCLC were: L* (54.46 vs. 55.99; P < 0.0001), pH (6.00 vs. 5.74; P < 0.0001), and Warner-Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF) (20.43 vs. 25.99 N; P < 0.0001). Mean EN and NON sirloin chop values were: L* (53.74 vs. 52.51; P = 0.20), pH (6.00 vs. 5.89; P = 0.04), and WBSF (16.18 vs. 22.92 N; P < 0.0001). Mean EN and NON blade steak values were L* (45.81 vs. 45.96; P = 0.82), pH (6.42 vs. 6.28; P = 0.04), WBSF (15.74 vs. 19.42 N; P = 0.0005). Results indicate a large amount of variation exists in the pork retail self-serve meat case.
Ancestral Breed Grouping for Improving Animal Modeling in Admixed Populations and Its Use in Leptin (Genetic and Hormone) Association Studies with Performance Traits in Commercial Beef Cow Herd
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Bhowmik, Nayan
The first study investigated American Aberdeen (AD) cattle's genetic structure and its genetic relationships with five American taurine beef breeds and the genetic population structure of a related admixed cattle herd for improved statistical modeling. The last two studies investigated the role of leptin (LEP) c.73C>T polymorphism, leptin diplotype (LEPD), and leptin hormone (LEPH) concentration on reproductive, growth, size, feeding, and carcass ultrasound traits in beef cows and heifers. High levels of polymorphism were observed in admixed, Red Angus, and Gelbvieh (GV) populations. The lowest level of polymorphism was found in AD followed by undetermined parentage. Pairwise fixation index displayed the largest genetic differentiation between AD and GV, Simmental, and Shorthorn breeds. Even though founder animals originated from the Angus breed, the AD breed exhibited unique genomic characteristics. Mixed animal models with or without pedigree that included the primary ancestral breed group (ABG) for admixed individuals developed from diversity analyses performed better than models without the ABG. With these improved models, novel relationships between LEP genotype and number of follicles and ovary size were identified. Similar relationships of the LEP genotype in multiple growth and weight traits that have been published before have been confirmed. However, reverse relationships were observed for feed efficiency. The LEPD showed associations for feed efficiency, weight traits, and body size traits. Novel relationships between LEPH categories (high vs. low) were reported on two feeding behavior traits, including number of meals per day and feed intake per meal. However, no relationship was observed between LEP genotype and plasma LEPH concentration in this population. Literature indicates the increased productivity of the T allele for growth and carcass attributes, so it was expected that the same increased productivity would be found for reproductive traits. Therefore, the T allele of LEP c.73C>T marker could be used as a valuable marker for selecting for improved growth, body size, and reproductive performance in commercial beef heifers. Also, circulatory LEPH before the breeding season may serve as a predictor for feeding behavior, body size, and reproductive traits. Even so, not all comparisons could be statistically proven; therefore, additional investigations may be warranted.
Are Infrared Thermography, Automated Feeding Systems, And Heart Rate Variability Measures Capable of Characterizing Group-Housed Sow Social Hierarchies?
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Sommer, Dominique
Group gestation housing is becoming standard practice in commercial swine production. Although group housing promotes behavioral variability within the breeding herd, it can cause several management challenges for producers due to the establishment of the social hierarchy. Poor performance and welfare in group housed breeding stock can be attributed to the repercussions of aggression performed between dyads. The ability to quickly identify sows in the social hierarchy could be beneficial to producers for enforcing preventative actions. Precision livestock farming tools have proven to aid animal caretakers in monitoring animal health and welfare in livestock industries.The objective of this thesis was to investigate the use of infrared thermography, feeding activity obtained from an automated radiofrequency identification feeding system, and heat rate variability indices for detecting the social hierarchy within groups of gestating sows. Additionally, the relationship between observed social hierarchy, body condition scores, backfat, and reproductive performance was also explored.
Arginine Supplementation Strategies during Gestation: Impacts on Dams and Offspring
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Bjertness, Jena Lee
We hypothesize rumen-protected arginine supplementation during gestation will mitigate deleterious offspring effects caused by undernutrition. Experiment 1: non-pregnant ewes were supplemented with rumen-protected arginine at varying doses to assess effects on circulating amino acids and carotid hemodynamics. Arginine concentrations post-supplementation were greater in ewes supplemented with 180 vs. 90 mg/kg BW, and vascular resistance indices were lesser with 180 mg/kg BW; therefore, 180 mg/kg BW was used in experiment 2. Experiment 2: nutrient-restricted pregnant ewes were supplemented with rumen-protected arginine and maternal and offspring growth and physiological responses were measured. Arginine supplementation to nutrient restricted ewes improved offspring development compared to restricted ewes without supplementation. Circulating amino acids in offspring were efficiently metabolized, which may contribute to improved growth and development. There was no change in carotid hemodynamics in supplemented pregnant ewes. Further research should determine how arginine improves development, as this dietary supplement could rescue at-risk pregnancies.
Biological Abnormalities in the Ruminant Small Intestine and Its Relationship to Carbohydrate Assimilation
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Trotta, Ronald
Several biological abnormalities exist between the ruminant and nonruminant small intestine and influences carbohydrate assimilation. Two experiments were conducted to identify potential mechanisms to improve carbohydrate utilization in cattle. Experiment 1 evaluated the effects of duodenal starch infusions with casein or glutamic acid on post-ruminal carbohydrase activities. Experiment 2 evaluated the effects of dietary fructose on visceral organ development and expression of nutrient transporters and digestive enzymes involved in carbohydrate assimilation. In experiment 1, the results suggest that small intestinal starch digestion may be improved in cattle with increased small intestinal flow of casein through increases in post-ruminal carbohydrase activities. In experiment 2, dietary fructose supply influenced nutrient utilization, visceral organ growth, and digestive enzyme mRNA expression and activity in neonatal calves.
Biological Evaluation of the Associations Between Animal Size, Feeding Behavior, Blood Metabolites and Feed Efficiency in Beef Cattle
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Portela Fontoura, Ananda Barbara
The biological variation in feed efficiency is regulated by multiple physiological mechanisms relevant to energy use in livestock species. The current study examined the associations between body composition, feeding behavior, linear body measurements and plasma metabolites with different measures of feed efficiency in growing heifers, finishing steers and mature pregnant cows. Our findings indicate that inclusion of body size measurements in prediction models of gain and intake improved the models’ accuracy and might account important differences related to eating capacity. Among the traits evaluated, feeding behavior possessed stronger associations with efficiency measures and displayed differences between efficient and inefficient animals. The associations between the traits studied herein varied across the efficiency measures used and beef cattle stage of production. Thus, selection criteria and performance evaluation based on efficiency measures should account for these traits, combined with animal’s stage of production and system’s outputs of interest.
Body Weight and Adiposity Changes of Obese Gilts Provided Ad Libitum Ground Beef Versus High Carbohydrate Diets
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Wellnitz, Krista R.
This study investigated the impact of providing a red meat (GB; cooked ground beef; 63% lean) or high-carbohydrate diet (CON) on growth performance and body composition of obese gilts as a biomedical model for humans. Treatment differences were observed for total intake (kg consumed/d; P = 0.05), average caloric intake (calculated kcals/d; P = 0.003), BW change (P = 0.012), and a treatment by harvest day interaction (P = 0.001) for pancreas weight. Subcutaneous backfat measured adjacent the 10th thoracic vertebra expressed as a percentage change from d0 tended (P = 0.09) to be less in GB gilts. There was no evidence of cardiac ventricular inflammation across treatments (P > 0.21). Despite consuming more total feed and more calories, the GB gilts gained less BW and deposited less subcutaneous fat over 84 days. More research is needed to further understand the physiological effect of food on human nutrition and health.
Can Hematocrit Levels at Estrus in Dairy Cows and Sheep Be an Indicator for Pregnancy Success?
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Kelany, Khaled Elaraby
Despite the major reproductive advances in the livestock industry, prenatal embryonic loss is still one of the major issues that causes substantial economic loss. While there are many tests available to determine pregnancy soon after maternal recognition of pregnancy, most of the prenatal losses are undetectable because it occurs before then. Based on previous research we hypothesized that increased plasma volume around the time of estrus will increase the survivability of the embryo at early stages of gestation. However, our findings indicate that hematocrit levels are not a consistent measurement in determining successful pregnancies.
Characteristics of Health Parameters and the Digital Cushion in Horses
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Gunkelman, Mattia Ann
Studies examining lameness conditions and health concerns for horse owners are important for education and future research. To investigate this, a survey and two studies were conducted. For the survey, a total of 152 responses were collected. Horse owners ranked lameness as the top concern (35%), followed by colic (21%). Lameness issues were ranked as the top (37%) veterinary expense. To validate a non-invasive ultrasound technique for imaging the digital cushion, ten cadaver limbs were evaluated. There was a strong correlation (r = 0.73; p = 0.02) between ultrasound and actual measurement. To establish baseline values, 25 mature, stock-type horses were imaged. Mean values for age, weight, and BCS were 10.5 years, 477.2 kg, and 5.5, respectively. Mean values for digital cushion of the left fore and hind were 0.96 and 1.04 cm, respectively. When comparing shod versus unshod horses, no significant difference (p = 0.13) was observed.
Circulating Risk Factors for Obesity-Related Metabolic Disorders Associated with a Low-Glycemic Beef Diet Fed via a Swine Biomedical Model
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Baranko, Loren Lydia
This study was conducted to determine if differences in blood chemistry are associated with a high fat ground beef diet. Ten crossbred gilts were allocated to a red meat (GB; cooked ground beef; 60% lean) or high-carbohydrate diet (CON). Fasted concentration of circulating triglycerides was not different and there was no evidence of cardiac ventricular inflammation across treatments (P > 0.21). Ground beef gilts had higher total and LDL cholesterol (P = 0.02); however, oil red stained aortic loops showed no indication of atherosclerosis or fat deposits. Gilts fed ground beef had lower insulin-like growth factor-1, total carbon dioxide (CO2) and bicarbonate (HCO3; P < 0.05) and greater fasted glucose concentration (P = 0.04). More research is necessary to determine whether high fat or high carbohydrate diets are the greater risk factor for obesity-related metabolic disorders.
Computer Vision System as a Tool to Estimate Pork Marbling
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Liu, Jeng-Hung
Currently pork marbling is assessed subjectively in the industry, because of the limited methods and tools that are suitable for the industry. In this dissertation, we are devoted to develop a computer vision system for objective measurement of pork which suits the industrial needs. Experiment 1 examined the possibility of using computer vision system (CVS) to predict marbling in a lab-based experiment using pork samples that were already trimmed of subcutaneous fat and connective tissue. Experiment 2 an industrial scale CVS was built to predict the 3rd and 10th rib pork chop’s marbling. Experiment 3 the industrial scale CVS was tested in the meat plant and images of whole boneless pork loin were collected. The CVS predicted marbling were compared with subjective marbling score using crude fat percentage (CF%) as standard. In experiment 1 subjective marbling score had a correlation of 0.81 with CF% while CVS had a 0.66 correlation. CVS has shown an accuracy of 63% for stepwise regression model and 75% for support vector machine model. These results indicate that CVS has the potential to be used as an tool to predict pork intramuscular fat (IMF)%. In experiment 2 the accuracy of CVS predicting pork chop CF% was 68.6% and subjective marbling was 70.1%. A drop of accuracy in predicting anterior chop CF% for both CVS and objective marbling score was observed when compared to posterior chop, this suggest that there is a discrepancy in accuracy between the anatomy location of samples collected. In experiment 3 the accuracy of CVS predicting boneless whole loin was 58.6% and subjective marbling score was 53.3%. In this research, CVS has demonstrated a consistency of accuracies using different pork samples. CVS has shown higher accuracy when predicting whole boneless loin IMF% when compared to subjective assessment.
Dietary Impacts on Mitochondrial Respiration of Gestating Heifers and Fetal Offspring
(North Dakota State University, 2024) Slavick, Kathryn
Two projects were conducted to evaluate dietary impacts on mitochondrial respiration of gestating heifers and fetal offspring. Our first hypothesis was that maternal vitamin and mineral supplementation during gestation improves the liver, muscle, and jejunum mitochondrial function of F1 and F2 offspring. In project 1, vitamin and mineral supplementation was provided to the F0 generation of dams from breeding to calving to isolate the effects of nutrition during pregnancy on future generations. Our second hypothesis was that altering limit-fed diets' forage: concentrate ratio would influence mitochondrial respiration in maternal and fetal jejunum and liver. In project 2, replacement heifers were fed high-concentrate and high-forage diets to evaluate the dietary impacts on fetal cellular metabolism of key metabolic organs. In both project 1 and 2, modulations of metabolism occurred in key metabolic organs of gestating heifers.
Disseminating Agriculture Information using the BBQ Boot Camp Model
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Germolus, Austen John
The BBQ Boot Camp program was designed to educate consumers about agriculture production and sustainability, while teaching outdoor cooking methods with meat as the focus. Through the BBQ Boot Camp model, consumer impact was analyzed using a pre- and post-program test. The test questions focused on outdoor cooking, agriculture practices, and food safety issues. Data were collected from 3,112 attendees from 31 BBQ Boot Camps in 2009–2013. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure in SAS with fixed effects of year, time, age, sex, and city size (1=population>15k; 2=population between 2.5k-15k; and 3=population<2.5k) and all two-way interactions were tested and removed from the model if P>0.1. Consumer demographics included men and women representing five age categories (18-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, and 60+). Data collected provided a unique opportunity to observe factors influencing consumer purchase decisions and the ability to evaluate the effectiveness of this form of extension programming.
Does Beef Inclusion in a Modern American Diet Influence Risk Factors for Obesity-related Metabolic Disorders via a Swine Biomedical Model
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Siomka, Alexis Michelle
Using swine as a model for humans, this study was conducted to determine if replacing the sugar present in the average American diet (SUG) with ground beef (GB) would alter developmental body composition, onset of puberty, and risk factors for obesity-related metabolic disorders. Twenty-four Berkshire gilts of common age and sire line were obtained at weaning, assigned to one of two dietary treatments (SUG vs. GB), and pair-fed at an average of 3.7 % body weight for 93 d. Over time, GB gilts had superior body weight gain (P < 0.01), larger cross-sectional longissimus muscle area (P < 0.0001), less subcutaneous fat depth (P = 0.0005), and greater percentage lean body mass (P < 0.0001) than SUG. Reproductive tracts were prepubertal across treatments; however, follicular development was observed in GB gilts. Sodium, hematocrit, hemoglobin, and insulin-like growth factor 1 were higher and ionic calcium lower for GB compared to SUG gilts.
The Effect of Artificial Insemination or Natural Service Breeding Systems on Reproductive Performance, Calving Characteristics, Weaning Characteristics, and Steer Backgrounding Performance in a Commercial Beef Herd
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Steichen, Philip Lee
Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of beef cattle breeding systems that incorporate artificial insemination (AI) or breeding systems that use natural service mating on resultant reproductive performance, calving characteristics, weaning characteristics, and steer backgrounding performance. In Exp. 1, cows and heifers were assigned to 1 of 2 breeding season systems: 1) exposed only to natural service bulls (NS, n = 541) or 2) bred via AI on the first day of the breeding season, followed by exposure to natural service bulls (TAI, n = 535). Final pregnancy rates were similar among treatments. However, more calves were born within the first 21 d of the calving season resulting in heavier weaning weights of calves born in the first 21 d of the calving season for TAI compared with NS. In Exp. 2, steer progeny from females in Exp. 1 were evaluated in a 69 d backgrounding study. Though distinct performance advantages of TAI steers were not observed, calves born early in the calving season had greater feed intake and gain compared with calves born later in the calving season regardless of treatment.
The Effect of Hemp Byproduct Supplementation on Beef Quality
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Gundersen, Kiersten
The supplementation of hempseed cake (hemp byproduct) could be considered an alternative protein and fiber source for ruminants such as cattle. Hempseed cake might be a successful alternative feed source due to cattle’s digestive abilities. Yet, the physiological effects caused by cannabinoids in hemp (cannabidiol [CBD] and (-)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinaol [THC]) are of concern. However, hemp with much less than 0.3% THC on a dry matter basis can remain a potential alternative feed ingredient. The objective of this study was to evaluate the significance of hempseed cake inclusion in a late finishing ration on carcass characteristics, meat quality characteristics, retail shelf-life, proximate analysis, and fatty acid profile of muscle food obtained from commercial beef heifers.
Effect of Linseed Meal on the Reproductive and Digestive Tracts in Sheep
(North Dakota State University, 2007) O'Neil, Mathew Reid
To evaluate the estrogenic potential of secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG) found in linseed meal (LSM) on visceral organ mass, uterine mass, jejunal cellularity, jejunal vascularity, and angiogenic factor expression in the jejunum, 48 multiparous, ovariectomized ewes were used in a 3 x 4 factorial. Ewes were fed a diet containing 12.5% LSM for 0, 1, 7, or 14 d and implanted with estradiol 17-ß (E2) for 0, 6, or 24 h before tissue collection. This study confirmed that LSM interacts with E2 to alter uterine and duodenal mass; that E2 is capable of altering liver, duodenal, and uterine mass; and that LSM is capable of altering liver and duodenal mass. In addition to altering organ mass, LSM interacted with E2, causing E2 to have no effect on cellular proliferation rate of the jejunum when LSM was fed for 1, 7, or 14 d, whereas cellular proliferation was increased in the duodenum in response to E2 when LSM was fed for 0 d. However, neither LSM nor E2 altered any measurement of vascularity. Expression of angiogenic factor mRNA was also examined. Implanting ewes with E2 for 6 h increased eNOS mRNA expression; whereas, LSM and E2 interacted to alter mRNA expression of its receptor, sGC, as well as VEGF's 2 receptors, FLT and KDR. Although this study confirmed LSM's ability to interact with E2, further research is needed to investigate its effects on intact cyclic animals as well as in pregnant animals and their offspring.
Effect of Maternal Metabolizable Protein Supplementation During Late Gestation on Fetal Visceralorgan Weight with Application of Proteomics to Investigate Skeletal Muscle Development in Sheep
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Schwartz, Christina Anne
The experiment investigated supplementation of maternal metabolizable protein in an isocaloric diet during late gestation on fetal organ growth and skeletal muscle development in sheep. Although fetal body weight was unaffected by treatment, visceral organ weights were sensitive to MP treatment as alterations in small intestinal mass and perirenal adipose tissue content suggest impacts on postnatal growth. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry compared the sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar protein fractions of fetal skeletal longissimus muscle, identifying spots from the sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar protein fractions (30 and 12, respectively). Increased expression of fructose-bisphosphate aldolase in fetal muscle from protein-supplemented and protein-restricted ewes when compared to those from control ewes suggests a positive influence on rate of glycolysis and muscle turnover in these offspring. Further research on maternal supplementation with metabolizable protein in isocaloric diets is needed to improve fetal growth efficiency, thereby optimizing offspring performance.
The Effect of Vitamin A Restriction on Marbling and Adipogenic Gene Expression in Commercial Angus and Simmental Steers
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Knutson, Evan Elliot
Vitamin A (Vit-A) restriction has been shown to increase marbling in cattle. Our hypothesis for this study was that a low Vit-A diet would increase marbling and improve meat quality characteristics while having no effect on production characteristics of Angus cross and Simmental steers. We also hypothesize that expression of proadipogenic factors such as PPARγ, C/EBPα, and FABP4 will be upregulated, and anti-adipogenic factors such as PREF-1 down regulated in cattle with high marbling scores. Treatments consisted of an unsupplemented VA basal diet and a VA supplemented diet at 2200IU/kg DM, arranged in a 2x2-treatment arrangement with breed. There was a significant interaction between breed and treatment on marbling score (P = 0.008), Angus cross steers on the low Vit-A treatment had the greatest marbling and resultantly the greatest quality grades (P = 0.02).
Effects of Alternate Day Feeding of Dried Distiller’s Grains Plus Solubles and Grass Hay on Metabolism and Performance in Cattle
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Klein, Sharnae Ivon
Two studies were conducted to determine the effects of supplementing dried distiller's grains plus solubles (DDGS) on alternate days to forage-fed cattle. We hypothesized that feeding either DDGS at a low percent of body weight or a moderate to low quality hay on alternate days would decrease forage intake without negatively impacting rumen kinetics and digestibility in steers as well as body weight and body composition in gestating cows. Therefore the objective of these research trials was to examine the effects of alternate day feeding of DDGS and grass hay on ruminal and digestion kinetics in Holstein steers (EXP. 1) and performance in gestating beef cows (EXP. 2). In both research experiments a decrease of total forage DMI was observed (EXP. 1; P = 0.0004 and EXP. 2; P < 0.0001) for cattle allotted to the alternate day feeding of DDGS and grass hay.

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