Soil Science

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Research from the Department of Soil Science. The department is part of the School of Natural Resources, and their website may be found at https://www.ndsu.edu/snrs/

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Advancing Soil Health: Linking Belowground Microbial Processes to Aboveground Land Management
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Dose, Heather Lynn
Advancing soil health lies at the intersection of belowground microbial processes and aboveground land management. However, linking microbial processes to land use is difficult. Understanding the response of soil microbes to management factors will provide agricultural producers and land managers with information regarding best management practices that not only improve soil health, but also maximize profitability. This study advances the understanding of microbial responses to land management by measuring microbial response to a) amendment application and tile drainage to remediate sodic soils, b) cover crop growth and tile drainage to ameliorate saline soils and c) tillage and fertilizer management factors on Bradyrhizobium japonicum, a symbiotic bacteria needed for biological N fixation in soybeans (Glycine max L.). Multiple time point measurements of soil microbial enzymes and functional gene copy numbers from three field experiments were used to determine microbial responses to land management. Key findings indicate that gypsum amendment applications, although effective at reducing sodicity, reduce soil enzyme activity levels in the short-term while tile drainage has no effect on microbial response to sodic soils. This work also demonstrates that the quantity of nitrifiers and denitrifiers can be used as either short–term or long–term indicators of soil health which reflect overall ecosystem health in sodic soils. In contrast to sodic soils, nitrifiers and denitrifiers are not useful indicators of soil health in saline soils as these microbial communities exhibit salinity induced community tolerance. Finally, tillage system and N availability have the greatest effect on B. japonicum numbers and activity in the soil. The lower amount of N obtained from biological N fixation in soybeans grown under no till systems reflects the reduced reliance on B. japonicum for plant N needs. Inoculated populations of B. japonicum are important for early season biological N fixation, but persistent and diverse populations of B. japonicum play an important role in late season N fixation in the lateral soybean root nodules. Overall, this work demonstrates that monitoring soil microbial activity can be useful for producers and land managers looking to improve soil health.
Association and Bioavailability of 17β-Estradiol with Soil and Manure Aqueous Dissolved and Colloidal Fractions
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Chambers, Katrin Bella
Steroidal estrogens in the environment exert toxicological effects at very low concentrations. Furthermore, dissolved and colloidal fractions of soil and manure play an important role in the environmental fate and transport of steroidal estrogens. One objective of this study was to quantify the association of the natural estrogen, 17β-estradiol (E2), with the dissolved fraction and colloidal fraction isolated from liquid swine manure (LSM), soil, and soil+LSM mixtures. The second objective of this study was to evaluate whether the E2 associated with the dissolved fraction/colloidal fraction, dissolved fraction and colloidal fraction of the various media could induce an estrogenic response. Estrogenicity was assessed using an E2 receptor (ER) competitor assay, which provided E2 equivalent concentration (EEQ) of dissolved fraction/colloidal fraction, dissolved fraction and colloidal fraction solutions created from the Soil, Soil+LSM and LSM.
Biological Response to Sulfate Salinity in Richland County, North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Butcher, Kirsten R.
Soil salinization is a major threat to agricultural ecosystems. Consequently, an understanding of agro-ecosystem functions affected by increasing levels of soil salinity is critical for land management. The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of soil salinity on corn and soybean growth and soil microbial activity in southeastern North Dakota soils with naturally occurring soil salinity. A field study assessed corn and soybean yield, and a laboratory study assessed microbial respiration in response to increasing salinization. Both corn and soybean yield were significantly impacted by salinity in sandy loam soils, declining after a threshold of 4.57 dS m-1 and 2.98 dS m-1, respectively. These thresholds are higher and lower than previously established threshold tolerances for corn and soybean, respectively. Microbial respiration in sandy loam soils could not be significantly explained by ECe, potentially indicating a community composition that has acclimated to sulfate-based salinity in these soils.
Brine-Contaminated Soils in Western North Dakota: Site Assessment Methodology and a New In-Situ Remediation Method
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Klaustermeier, Aaron Wallace
Anthropogenic soil salinity caused by produced water (i.e., brine) contamination is an issue in all oil and gas producing regions. The objectives of this research are to develop soil electrical conductivity (EC) conversion equations for rapid site assessment of brine spills and to determine the efficacy of crystallization inhibitors as an in-situ remediation method. Conversion equations were developed for soil-to-water suspensions and saturated paste extracts (ECe) on brine-contaminated soils. These new equations provided the best prediction of ECe when compared to 14 other equations reported in the literature. A crystallization inhibitor (C18Fe7N18) applied to NaCl-contaminated soils using various concentrations and methods of application yielded dendritic salt crystals above the soil surface. On average, between 0.29 and 0.57 g g-1 of NaCl salts effloresced when surface applying a 0.01M concentration of the crystallization inhibitor. Results from these studies will guide consultants and researchers in the assessment and remediation of brine-contaminated soils.
Can We Increase Crop Yield Adopting Tile Drainage in Fargo Clay Soil?
(North Dakota State University, 2018) Acharya, Umesh
Subsurface drainage has recently become common for agriculturally productive soils and key to maintain and improve crop production in poorly drained, frigid clay soils. The first study was conducted for four years (2014-17) at Casselton, ND to determine best combination of drainage, tillage and crop rotation for higher corn yield. Our finding suggested corn yield was highest with no drainage, CS and CH combination in years with drought conditions. The second study was conducted for three years (2015-17) to evaluate subsurface drainage spacing (9, 12, and 15m) and depth (0.9 and 1.2m) combination on corn, soybean and sugarbeet yields and residual soil nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) contents. Results indicated that 9 m drain spacing produced highest corn and soybean yield when average across three years in contrast with drain depth that has no effect on corn and soybean yield except for sugarbeet where the 1.2m depth yielded higher than the 0.9m depth.
Characterizing Soil Microbial Communities of Reclaimed Roads in North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Viall, Eric
Reclaimed roads on the Little Missouri National Grasslands of southwestern North Dakota have not returned to pre-disturbance conditions. Phospholipid fatty acid analysis was performed on soil samples collected from reclaimed roads and adjacent prairie to assess reclamation effects on the microbial community. Additionally, nutrient cycling capacity was measured by four enzyme assays. Ordination analysis of PLFA data identified a distance gradient indicating microbial communities of reclaimed roads were different from the prairie. Specifically, Gram-negative bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are associated with roads; soil organic matter was associated with prairie sites. Soil enzyme activities associated with prairie sites indicate greater nutrient cycling. The soils of reclaimed roads have not accumulated sufficient organic matter to sustain both plant and microbial communities characteristic of the surrounding prairie.
Chemical and Biological Characteristics of Thermally and Chemically Disturbed Soil in Northwestern North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Ritter, Samantha Susan
Thermal desorption (TD) remediates hydrocarbon-contaminated soil by heating the soil (200 to 500 °C) to volatilize the hydrocarbons, effectively removing the contaminant from the soil. If the soil is then used for agricultural production, reclamation success can be determined by quantifying aspects of soil health. Cation exchange capacity (CEC), cation selectivity and Gibbs free energy (ΔGex) of TD-treated and untreated soil were compared. Although CEC and ΔGex differed, cation selectivities were not altered suggesting that alternative fertility management to retain previous soil productivity may not be needed. From field plots, N-transforming genes were lowered in contaminated and TD-treated soils as compared to non-contaminated soil, but the addition of surface soil (1:1 blends) increased N-cycling genes to levels reported in the literature. Thermal desorption may not alter soil chemical as much as biological metrics, but blending treated or contaminated soils with native surface soils can enhance soil function and, ultimately, productivity.
Corn Response to Sulfur Fertilizer in the Red River Valley
(North Dakota State University, 2018) Kaur, Jashandeep
A study was conducted at ten locations in North Dakota and Minnesota in 2016 and 2017 to evaluate corn response to different sulfur (S) application rates and to determine the relationship between corn yield and plant tests. Five S treatments of 0 (check), 11, 22, 33, and 44 kg S ha-1 were applied as ammonium sulfate granular fertilizer. Significant increase in corn yield occurred at only two sites (out of ten sites) in both years. Application of 33 kg S ha-1 (2016) and 44 kg S ha-1 (2017) increased corn yield by 3.4 Mg ha-1 and 1.3 Mg ha-1, respectively. Poor correlation was noticed between plant tests (tissue S and N/S) and corn yield. These results indicate that response to S varies from soil to soil and weather conditions may play the most important role in determining the response. Additional research should be conducted using different soils over multiple years.
Evaluating Dynamic Soil Change in the Barnes Soil Series Across Eastern North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Montgomery, Brandon
Quantifying long-term, global soil change is of the utmost importance as the human population continues growing and food security needs intensify. North Dakota presents a unique opportunity to study dynamic soil change because of its agricultural prominence and extensive soil survey data. A resampling method to characterize soil change from legacy soil survey data was utilized on a benchmark soil series, the Barnes, in North Dakota. Significant decreases (p<0.05) in soil organic carbon (SOC) were measured in surface horizons of three Barnes pedons, and depending upon management practices, morphologic changes ranged from highly eroded, with the complete loss of the A horizon, at two sites, to non-eroded conditions at sites returned to CRP 25 years ago. Additionally, using remotely sensed evapotranspiration (ET) data as a non-biased proxy for soil function shows modeling potential. These results serve as a proof of concept and demonstrate the need for more comprehensive research.
Evaluation of Active Optical Ground-Based Sensors to Detect Early Nitrogen Deficiencies in Corn
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Sharma, Lakesh Kumar
Corn (Zea mays, L) is an important world crop used as livestock feed, human consumption and ethanol production. Early in-season loss of nitrogen (N) continues to be a problem in corn. Ground-based active optical sensors (GBAO) have shown very promising results in predicting crop yield. In these experiments, two GBAO sensors GS and CC were used within forty-six established corn N-rate trials in North Dakota at the six (V6) and twelve (V12) leaf growth stages in 2011, 2012, and 2013. Corn height at V6 and V12 was recorded manually at each site in all three years. At V6, the GS relationship to yield and the INSEY (INSEY = in-season estimate of yield = sensor NDVI / growing degree days from planting date) value was often improved when the sensor NDVI was multiplied times corn height. Segregating the data sets into sites with eastern high clay conventional-till sites surface soil textures (clay more than 30%) and sites with more medium textures improved all INSEY relationships compared to pooling all sites. Eastern high clay conventional-till sites and eatstern medium textured converntional-till sites were further divided into those higher in productivity (yields greater than 10 Mg ha-1) and those lower in productivity (yields less than 10 Mg ha-1). The data categories differed in their sensor relationships to yield. Within all categories, the sensor relationships at V6 were weaker than those at V12. In the lower yielding eastern high clay conventional-till sites, lower yielding eastern medium-textured conventional-till sites, and the eastern no-till sites, no significant relationship was found at V6. At V12, a relatively weak relationship was only found in the low yielding eastern medium-textured coventional-till sites. The GS and CC were found to identify S deficiency at two sites in 2013. Both sensors detected that as N rate increased, the sensor readings generally decreased. This concept could be used by practitioners to screen sites with early season S deficiency, using an N rich strip in the field.
Evaluation of Soil Potassium Test to Improve Fertilizer Recommendations for Corn
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Rakkar, Manbir Kaur
A study was conducted at thirteen locations in North Dakota and Minnesota in 2013 and 2014 with the objectives of determining difference between the soil potassium (K) results based upon air-dried (KDry) and field-moist (KMoist) soil samples during the corn growing season and to evaluate corn response to applied K-fertilizer. Overall, KDry tests showed higher K levels in the soil test results compared to KMoist but the pattern of deviation was dependent upon various soil properties such as initial soil K level. Temporal variation of soil K levels indicated a need to consider time of soil sampling while making fertilizer recommendations. Potassium application significantly increased corn yields at only five out of 11 sites with soil K levels below critical K soil test levels (<150 ppm). Therefore, development of an improved soil testing strategy is required to improve the predictability of corn response to applied K fertilizer in this region.
Fate and Transport of an Estrogen Conjugate 17ß-Estradiol-17-Sulfate in Soil-Water Systems
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Bai, Xuelian
The hypothesis of this study was that a sulfate conjugated estrogen, i.e. 17β-estradiol-17- sulfate (E2-17S), could be a precursor to free estrogens detected in the environment. The objectives of were to investigate the fate and transport processes of E2-17S in various soil-water systems. Radiolabeled E2-17S was synthesized using a series of chemical for the subsequent soil batch experiments. The batch experiment results showed that E2-17S dissipated more quickly from the aqueous phase of the topsoil compared to the subsoil, demonstrating that soil organic carbon played a significant role. The aqueous dissipation of E2-17S was attributed to sorption to the soil surface and transformation to form multiple metabolites. The non-linear sorption isotherms indicated limited sorption of E2-17S, and the concentration-dependent log KOC values were 2.20 and 2.45 for the sterile topsoil and subsoil, respectively. The total radioactive residue measured in the irreversible sites was greater than the reversible sites, demonstrating that irreversible sorption was the predominant sorption process. The observed multiple metabolites suggested that E2-17S underwent complex transformation pathways. For the aqueous phase speciation, mono- and di-hydroxy-E2-17S were consistently detected under all soil conditions, which indicated that hydroxylation was the major transformation process. Also, the hydroxyl metabolites were found at higher concentrations in the topsoil than the subsoil. In the reversibly sorbed phase, free estrogens (i.e. 17β-estradiol and estrone) were detected at relatively low levels (≤ 2% of applied dose) for all soils, demonstrating that deconjugation/hydrolysis and subsequent oxidation did occur. Furthermore, both hydroxylation and hydrolysis of E2-17S took place under the non-sterile and sterile conditions. Although deconjugation was not a major pathway, E2-17S could be a precursor of free estrogens in the environment. A comprehensive one-site fully kinetic model was applied to simulate the overall governing processes in the soil-water systems and to describe the distribution of multiple metabolites in the aqueous, reversibly sorbed, and irreversibly sorbed phases. The model gave rise to a satisfactory fit for all experimental data obtained from the batch studies, and the 36 estimated parameters were derived at relatively high confidence.
Fertilizer Management Strategies of Soybean (Glycine Max, L. Merrill) in Northcentral and Northwestern North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Augustin, Christopher Lee
Soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) is a new cash crop for north central and northwestern North Dakota producers. Soils and climate in these new soybean areas differ from those regions where the current fertilizer recommendations were based. Northcentral and northwestern North Dakota is more undulating, drier, cooler, and has differencing soils than eastern North Dakota and Minnesota. A three-year study to evaluate soybean best management practices was conducted during the 2016 to 2018 growing seasons. Each year, the study consisted of two sites and 12 treatments. By design, one site was on acidic (pH < 6) soil while the other was on alkaline (pH > 7.3) soil. Both site treatments were: untreated check, inoculated with rhizobia (B. japonicum L.), broadcast urea (55 kg ha-1), broadcast MAP (monoammonium phosphate, 11-52-0) (110 kg ha-1), in-furrow 10-34-0 (28 L ha-1), in-furrow 6-24-6 (28 L ha-1), foliar 3-18-18 (28 L ha-1) at V5 and R2 growth stages, and foliar 3-18-18 (28 L ha-1) with sulfate (1.1 kg ha-1) at V5 and R2. The acidic sites alone included two treatments of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) waste lime (4.4 Mg ha-1 and 8.8 Mg ha-1). The alkaline sites alone received treatments of iron ortho-ortho-EDDHA (1.8% Fe) (7.1 L ha-1), and sodium (naked- without Fe) ortho-ortho-EDDHA (7.1 L ha-1). Treatments did not impact soybean yield, protein content or oil content at the 95% significance level. Sugar beet waste lime surface applied at planting at rates of 4.4 Mg ha-1 and 8.8 Mg ha-1 increased soil pH to a depth of 10 cm over the course of the growing season.
Foliar Application of Iron Chelated Fertilizer and Surfactants for Management of Iron Deficiency Chlorosis in Soybeans
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Rasmussen, Heidi
Iron deficiency chlorosis (IDC) is a production challenge for farmers growing soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], especially in the Red River Valley. It is critical to correct this deficiency as soon as symptoms arise before growth, and ultimately yield, is negatively impacted. Field experiments of foliar applied iron fertilizers (o-o-EDDHA, o-o-EDDHSA, HEDTA, and an amino acid) and suitable adjuvants (HSOC [high surfactant oil concentrate], non-ionic surfactant, acidifier, and organosilicone surfactant), to control IDC were conducted during the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons, respectively. There was high variability among the results for both the SPAD meter readings and soil iron concentration. The yield values were greater in the treated plots than with control plots, but not significantly so. Further experiments should be conducted to gain more knowledge on the prolonged use and efficiency of these products in the correction of IDC.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Soil Quality in Long-Term Integrated and Reduced Tillage Organic Systems
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Bhowmik, Arnab
Organic agroecosystems “rely on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions". Soil health is “the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans” and can be used to assess agroecosystems. The fertility of organic agroecosystems is dependent upon soil organic matter, an indicator of soil health that supplies much of the nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) in soil. Despite the potential to use soil health as a dynamic measure few data sets compare soil health of different organic systems. My research compares the effects of climate and key best management practices (disturbance, amendment type, and livestock integration) on C sequestration, N cycling and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in five organic cropping systems. The data also contribute to our understanding of how microbial community members controlling reactive N (nitrate, nitrous oxide) and C cycling contribute to or reduce GHG as well as the potential of reduced tillage organic systems to lower GHG emissions when N is coupled with C in organic materials. This dissertation research verifies that the types and quantities of N cycling microorganisms can be used as indicators of soil health to assess the impact of short and long-term management on biogeochemical processes (the transformation and cycling of elements between non-living and living matter) that reduce or contribute to global climate change in long-term organic systems. A reduction in GHG emissions benefits the public and may increase the value added of certified organic foods.
Influence of Amendments on Chemical and Biological Properties of Sodic Soils
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Breker, Maria Christine
Improving productivity of sodic soils has become a concern in North Dakota because of the desire for more land for producing crops. Field and incubation studies were conducted to determine the impacts of different amendments (flue-gas desulfurization gypsum, sugar beet processing by-product lime, and langbeinite) on the chemical and biological properties of two sodic soils. The field study evaluated the amendment effects on the chemical conditions of the soil and the impact on alfalfa yield and quality. Differences were not observed in percent sodium (%Na) in the first 17 months and alfalfa yield was not impacted by the treatments except for the high rate of langbeinite. The incubation study investigated the effects of amendments on both the chemical and biological properties of the soil. Spent lime increased the cumulative respiration but was not impacted by gypsum or langbeinite. Labile carbon (C) was negatively correlated with %Na and electrical conductivity (EC).
The Influence of Soil Salinity Gradients on Soybean [Glycine Max (L.) Merr.] and Corn (Zea Mays L.) Growth
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Langseth, Chandra Marie
An estimated 2.3 million hectares are salt-affected in North Dakota (Brennan and Ulmer, 2010), a number increasing due to land management, climate, and crop choice. As a result, yield reductions are noted for salt-sensitive crops such as soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr] and corn (Zea Mays L.). The objective of this greenhouse study was to assess soybean and corn response to salinity, using sulfate based salts. Soybean leaf area, plant mass, and height decreased by 66, 59, and 47%, respectively, across a salinity gradient ranging from an EC1:1 of 0.4 to 4.1 dS m-1. Corn mass and height decreased by 42 and 26%, respectively, root length and mass also decreased by 44 and 37%, respectively from an EC1:1 0.8 to 5.3 dS m-1. Thus, planting soybean and corn on salt-affected soils in North Dakota will result in overall decreased productivity for both crops even at low levels of salinity.
Irrigated Potato (Solanum Tuberosum L.) Yield, Quality Response and Nitrogen Losses as Influenced by Nitrogen Fertilizer Management and Cultivars
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Ghosh, Upasana
Field studies were conducted in 2015 and 2016 growing season at Northern Plains Potato Growers’ Association Irrigation site near Inkster, ND to evaluate the effectiveness of enhanced efficiency fertilizers (EEFs) in maintaining yield, quality and reducing environmental nitrogen (N) losses in irrigated potatoes (Solanum tuberosum). Two types of EEFs i.e. SuperU (urea with urease and nitrification inhibitor) and ESN (polymer coated urea); grower’s standard fertilization and unamended urea were applied in three late-sown russet potato cultivars. Our findings suggested that yield responses vary widely with respect to years, length of growing season and cultivar type. Among EEFs, ESN consistently maintained yield compared to conventional fertilization practices. In shorter growing season (114 days), no yield benefit over N rate of 225 kg ha-1 was obtained with higher N rates (280 kg N ha-1) and different N sources in all three cultivars. Determinate cultivars can be a better choice to get good yield with lower N rate in shorter growing seasons. Both of the EEFs significantly reduced N losses through ammonia (NH3) volatilization and nitrous oxide (N2O) emission compared to unamended urea and grower’s standard fertilization practice. SuperU did not reduce residual soil nitrate (NO3-) compared to unamended urea while ESN reduced residual soil NO3-. Overall, ESN or polymer coated urea (PCU) is a promising choice for reducing N losses from irrigated potatoes. Plant N status assessment is important for yield prediction. Despite of being time consuming, total N concentration in petioles gave the better estimate of crop N status compared to standard petiole NO3-N concentrations. For early season quick N status measurement, ground based active optical sensors should be used in a cultivar specific way. Nitrogen fertilization recommendation for irrigated potatoes in North Dakota should be recalibrated considering length of growing season and cultivar type.
Laboratory and Greenhouse Evaluation of FeEddha Fertilizers of Differing Quality
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Lovas, Sarah
Commercial iron ethylene diamine di(hydroxyl phenyl acetic acid) (FeEDDHA) fertilizers containing the same Fe percent and applied at the same FeEDDHA rate control Fe deficiency chlorosis (IDC) differently due to differing ortho, ortho FeEDDHA (o,o-FeEDDHA) concentrations. This study: 1) determined the effect of o,o-FeEDDHA concentration on controlling IDC in soybeans (Glycine max L. Merr.); and 2) developed a soil-stability test using a simple colorimetric analysis method to determine the relative quality of soil-applied FeEDDHA fertilizers. A greenhouse experiment was conducted where nine FeEDDHA fertilizers were applied at two FeEDDHA rates. The soil-stability test compared these fertilizers with two incubation methods which utilized three soils and four incubation times, and extracts were analyzed by two methods. The results of these experiments suggest that soil-applied FeEDDHA fertilizer quality is contingent upon its o,o-FeEDDHA concentration, and the fertilizer quality can be determined by a soil-stability test with a colorimetric analysis method.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Recalibration for Sunflower in North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Schultz, Eric Charles
Sunflower is one of the most important annual crops grown for edible oil in the world and is grown in North Dakota and the northern Great Plains more than any other region in the United States. Sunflower production and sunflower itself has evolved significantly since commercial cultivation began in the 1970s. In order to properly update fertility requirements of nitrogen and phosphorus in the northern Great Plains to correspond to this evolution, sunflower yield and oil concentration response to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer was investigated based on a twoyear (2014-2015) study. Highly significant statistical relationships between sunflower yield and oil concentration were found with nitrogen fertilizer rate but were not found with phosphorus fertilizer rate. This indicates that nitrogen fertilizer application rates used for sunflower need to be determined by current documented responses and that phosphorus fertilizer may not be needed to produce optimal yield and oil concentration of sunflower.

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