Biological Sciences

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Research from the Department of Biological Sciences. The department website may be found at https://www.ndsu.edu/biology/

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Assessment of Blackbird Damage to Sunflower and Corn Fields in the Prairie Pothole Region of North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Klosterman, Megan Elise
North Dakota is the top sunflower producing state in the United States, annually harvesting about 405,000 ha (1 million acres). Up to 63% of this crop is grown in central North Dakota in an area known as the Prairie Pothole Region (PPR). Since the early 2000s, com also has become a major crop in the PPR due to the development of hybrids for northern crop areas and increases in com prices. Blackbirds (Icteridae) can cause significant damage to both ripening com and sunflower. It has been three decades since a comprehensive sunflower damage survey was conducted in the PPR. I assessed blackbird damage to ripening sunflower and com in 120 randomly-selected plots during three growing seasons, 2008-2010. Damage was analyzed across four strata (Northeast Drift Plains, Northwest Drift Plains, Southern Drift Plains and Missouri Coteau) within the PPR. Landcover was analyzed to determine possible variables (pasture, com, sunflower, open water, wetland, small grains, developed, wooded, beans and other) related to blackbird damage. Stepwise logistic regressions were performed along with AIC model selection to determine significant (p<0.1) independent variables related to sunflower and com damage. Average damage to sunflower (2.14%) was higher than damage to com (0.33%), with sunflower in the Southern Drift Plains having the greatest levels of damage (11.11 %). Beans and wetland showed the greatest significance in relation to sunflower damage (p=<0.001, p=0.035), according to the selected AIC model. The most significant landcover variables surrounding damaged corn fields was open water (p=0.022), showing an increase in damage, and pasture (p=0.056), showing a decrease in damage. The results of this study provide data to help producers make informed decisions about crop selection and location.
Characterization of Variation in Growth Performance in Inbred Strains of Zebrafish (Danio Rerio)
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Meyer, Ben Michael
Although zebrafish have been a widely utilized model organism for several decades, there is little information available on physiological variation underlying genetic variation among the commonly used inbred strains. This study evaluated growth performance in response to fasting in six zebrafish strains [AB, TU, TL, SJA, WIK, and petstore (PET) zebrafish]. Fasting resulted in a decrease in whole blood glucose levels in PET, TL, and TU strains and did not affect glucose levels in AB, SJA, and WIK strains. Similarly, fasting had no effect on myostatin mRNA levels in AB, PET, TU, and WIK strains, but decreased myostatin-1 and -2 mRNA levels in SJA zebrafish. Fasting increased myostatin-2 mRNA levels in TL zebrafish. These data demonstrate that growth performance variation is present between commonly used zebrafish strains and can help future research endeavors by highlighting the attributes of each strain so that the most fitting strain may be utilized.
Characterizing the Immune Response of the Alfalfa Leafcutting Bee throughout Pupal Development
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Cummings, Sara Elizabeth
Megachile rotundata is a solitary cavity nesting bee that is the primary commercial pollinator of alfalfa in North America. During prepupal to adult development, they may be exposed to fungal, parasitic, and bacterial pathogens. However, little is known about their immune function throughout pupation. We characterized functional immunity of M. rotundata across development stages. We injected prepupal, pupal, and adult bees with live E. coli and compared mortality across groups. We also developed an assay to measure antimicrobial peptide (AMP) activity in hemolymph for the same age groups. Both pupal and prepupal bees are sensitive to injected E. coli, resulting in high mortality, while adult bees survived longer after infection. Pupal bees had significantly less AMP activity compared to prepupae and adults. Understanding immunity of M. rotundata will provide context for improving commercial rearing practices, where measuring AMP activity can now serve as a biological marker of bee quality.
Diet and Effects of Environmental Stressors on the Altricial Nestlings of Double-Crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax Auritus)
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Randa, Jacob G.
Double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) are a common species of altricial waterbird found across much of North America. As a piscivorous colonial waterbird, cormorants are often persecuted due to perceived impacts on fisheries. In this study I examined the diet of cormorant nestlings at five cormorant colonies in central North America to answer two questions: 1) Is nestling diet reflective of opportunistic feeding behavior, thus diminishing the likelihood of negative impacts to the fishery? and 2) How do diet and environmental stressors effect the development of cormorant nestlings? By analyzing the caloric content of nestling diet and quantifying environmental stressors such as endoparasite and ectoparasite loads, I found diet was a significant contributor to structural long bone growth in both the wing and tarsus. Diet analysis also corroborated the long held belief that cormorants have highly variable diets reflective of local fish communities and may vary annually as fish assemblages change.
The Distribution and Habitat Use of North Dakota Bats
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Barnhart, Paul Roy
Prior to 2009, a comprehensive statewide survey of occurrence and distribution of bats in North Dakota had not been conducted. From 2009 to 2012, mist netting, radio telemetry, and acoustic monitoring were conducted to document species presence and habitat associations across North Dakota. We surveyed multiple sites at 17 locations, captured a total of 309 bats, documented habitat associations, and identified roosting sites. Data was then used to: 1) build habitat suitability maps (also called species distribution maps or SDMs) for each species in the state, 2) examine the environmental and climatic variables that influence bat habitat use along the periphery of their distribution, 3) assess the effect of sampling technique on habitat suitability models, and 4) determine if North Dakota's badlands region contains overwintering bat populations that may be susceptible to white nose syndrome, an emerging fungal disease of hibernating bats. We confirmed the presence of 11 species in the state and found that five species were present in areas outside their ND IUCN distribution. Maximum-entropy modeling showed that temperature was the most important variable for SDM production. We found that sampling technique (physical capture vs. acoustic detection) led to pronounced differences in habitat suitability maps for some species (33.9% overlap; Myotis septentrionalis) while models from other species were highly similar (80.4% overlap; Myotis lucifugus). Our findings show that acoustic detection results in better SDMs for Myotis spp. while physical capture was best for Eptesicus fuscus and Lasionycteris noctivagans. During the winter, we positively identified four species based on both acoustic detection and physical capture: E. fuscus, Myotis evotis, Myotis ciliolabrum, and Corynorhinus townsendii. Based on known and potential hibernacula locations, we produced a habitat suitability map that was successfully used to locate additional potential hibernacula. We also recorded temperature in confirmed and potential hibernacula, finding that temperatures were within the optimum range of fungal growth. The information gathered from these studies will be used to develop the first statewide conservation action plan for North Dakota bats. Also, the habitat suitability maps produced will be used by managers to target areas of high priority for conservation of bat communities.
Drawing on Student Knowledge in Human Anatomy and Physiology
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Slominski, Tara
Prior to instruction, students may have developed alternative conceptions about the mechanics behind human physiology. To help students re-shape these ideas into correct reasoning, the faulty characteristics reinforcing the alternative conceptions need to made explicit. This study used student-generated drawings to expose alternative conceptions Human Anatomy and Physiology students had prior to instruction on neuron physiology. Specifically, we investigated how students thought about neuron communication across a synapse (n=355) and how neuron activity can be modified (n=311). When asked to depict basic communication between two neurons, at least 80% of students demonstrated incorrect ideas about synaptic transmission. When targeting spatial and temporal summation, only eleven students (3.5%) were able to accurately depict at least one form of summation. In response to both drawing questions, student drawings revealed multiple alternative conceptions that resulted in a deeper analysis and characterization of the wide variation of student ideas.
Eat to Reproduce: The Role of Diet Quantity on Honey Bee (Apis Mellifera) Caste Determination
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Slater, Garett
The received wisdom is that diet quality drives this queen-worker dichotomy, even though diet quantity differs significantly between queen and worker diet. Diet quantity likely determines honey bee caste; yet it has never been explicated tested. In this paper, we tested the hypothesis of diet quantity induced caste determination by; first, determine the ubiquity of quantity induced caste systems among highly-related taxa; second, determining the relative contributions of diet quantity vs. diet quality on adult caste in honey bees; and third, determine the influence of diet quantity on important cellular and physiological pathways known during caste determination. I found that: 1) diet quantity determines caste in honey bees and other eusocial hymenoptera, and 2) honey bees do not have a critical weight. This research likely will move forward the field of honey bee caste determination, which is a model for high-order sociality and phenotypic plasticity.
The Effectiveness of 9, 10 Anthraquinone as a Repellent to Protect Oilseed Sunflower from Blackbird Depredation
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Niner, Megan Denise
Across the Prairie Pothole Region of North America, blackbirds (Icteridae) cause millions of dollars in damage to sunflower crops annually, but effective methods to prevent or limit blackbird damage to sunflower crops are lacking. I tested two repellents (Avipel and AV2022, both with active ingredient 9, 10 anthraquinone) under application conditions that would be appropriate for large-scale, sunflower farming in two consecutive years. In 2012, I conducted daily avian point counts and weekly crop damage surveys to assess blackbird use of, and damage to, plots of sunflowers were sprayed with Avipel or left unsprayed (i.e., control). In 2013, I placed six netted enclosures (each containing three male red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus, approximately 40 mature sunflowers and trays with cracked corn and water) in a plot of sunflower treated with AV2022 applied by a ground sprayer, and six netted enclosures (each containing three male red-winged blackbirds approximately 40 mature sunflowers and trays with cracked corn and water) in an adjacent plot of sunflower left untreated (i.e., control). Results from 2012 indicate that blackbird use of, and damage to, sunflower plots did not vary with treatment of Avipel. Results from 2013 indicate that enclosures in the AV2022 treated plot had sunflower plants with significantly more seed loss and significantly less cracked corn consumed from food trays than enclosures in the untreated (i.e., control) plot. I conclude that 9, 10 anthraquinone does not significantly reduce blackbird damage to sunflower crops when applied using typical methods for pesticides in large-scale, commercial agriculture.
Effects of nest site environment and timing of breeding on reproductive success in Franklin's gulls (Larus pipixcan)
(North Dakota State University, 2009) Berg, Emily Anne
Offspring performance and phenotype are affected by genotype and environment, which in birds includes yolk resources (part of the embryonic environment). Female colony nesting birds may influence offspring competitive ability in the post-hatching nest site environment by differentially allocating yolk resources to eggs based on nest site characteristics. Offspring performance may also be linked to prenatal allocation of resources, as well as post-natal parental care. Nest site characteristics, including nest size, density, and timing of breeding, influence the behavior (e.g., aggressive, social) and resource acquisition of the parents, as well as provide measureable variation in the postnatal environment. I used an experimental approach to quantify relationships among nest site characteristics, nest success, and offspring performance (growth and survival) in a nesting colony of Franklin's gull (Larus pipixcan). I also used a cross-foster experiment to examine tbe effects of parental care and provisioning on growth and survival of neonates. Timing of breeding, egg quality, chick quality, nest success and chick survival varied between the 2006 and 2007 cohorts. Nests in 2006 were initiated later than nests in 2007 and experienced lower nest survival rates but produced chicks in better condition. Chicks in 2006 also experienced higher survival than chicks in 2007; however, chicks in 2006 experienced slower growth. Timing of breeding may have influenced measures of nest and chick success examined in this study. In Franklin's gull, a trade-off between offspring quality and offspring quantity may be a consequence of migratory delays or unusual weather patterns in this long-distance migratory species.
Effects of Processing on Health-Promoting Attributes of Soymilk Phenolics
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Tan, Yingying
This study was designed to investigate the effects of different processing methods on the antioxidant and anti-cancer properties of soymilk crude phenolic extract (CPE) using the human prostate cancer cell line DU 145 as a model system. Four grinding methods and two ultra-high temperature (UHT) processing methods were investigated. Briefly, the four grinding methods included grinding with tap water (Method 1), okara-washed water (Method 2), soaked water (Method 3), as well as both okara-washed water and soaked water (Method 4); the two UHT processing conditions included one-phase UHT (143 °c, 60 s) and two-phase UHT (120 °C, 80 s + 140 °C, 4 s) methods. The antioxidant capability of CPE was measured by oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and/or ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) assays. The DU 145 human prostate cancer cell line was sub-cultured in the presence of CPE at various concentrations (0, 1, 2, 4, 8 mg/ml) for 48 h and the percentage of cell viability was evaluated by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and/or flow cytometric analysis with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) staining. An induction of apoptosis was detected by flow cytometric analysis with annexin V/ propidium iodide (Pl) double staining, morphological change observation with acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) double staining, and Western blot assay of apoptotic proteins. The results showed that grinding Method 4 and the two-phase UHT method exhibited greater total phenolic content and antioxidant capability than the other three grinding methods and one-phase UHT, respectively. In addition, soymilk CPE inhibited cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner and upon purification. The anti-proliferation effects observed in soymilk CPE were associated with the apoptosis induction in DU 145 cell line as evidenced by morphological changes and the expression of apoptotic proteins. These results suggest that the soymilk CPE plays an important role in anti-proliferation, and apoptotic properties of soy in DU 145 cells. Furthermore, these health-promoting properties were affected by processing conditions, such as grinding and thermal conditions. The results of this study benefit the soy product industry to select appropriate processing conditions to retain more health-promotion phytochemicals during soy food's processing.
The Effects of Variation in Temperature and Parental Behavior on Offspring Body Mass, Telomeres and Survival Are Context-Dependent in Free Living House Sparrows (Passer domesticus)
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Dennis, Abigail
Although developing birds are vulnerable to extreme and erratic temperature conditions associated with climate change, parents have some ability to buffer these effects via incubation and postnatal behavior. However, parents are constrained by their own physiology and ecology. In this thesis, I sought to determine which factors (seasonal thermal profile, consistency of ambient temperature and/or parental behavior) drove traits linked to fitness across ontogeny in free-living house sparrow nestlings (Passer domesticus). I found that the effects of these factors were context-dependent; seasonal thermal profile and average temperature were important in shaping body size across ontogeny, but variance in nest temperature and female postnatal visits better predicted hatching and day 10 survival, respectively. Future studies should seek to answer these questions in other populations and explore hypotheses surrounding interactions between developmental environments to better our understanding of climate change and thermoregulation in response to increasingly warm and erratic global temperatures.
Energetics of Interrupted Development in Megachile rotundata
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Walter, Rikki
Insects in temperate regions may experience temperature fluctuations during springtime development which can lead to low temperature stress. Previous research has shown that short artificial fluctuations in temperature during interrupted development are advantageous when compared to static temperatures, but it is unclear why. One idea is it allows insects to repair chill injury and maintain cellular membrane potential. My goal was to understand what macromolecules are maintaining ion balance through measuring the respiratory quotient (RQ), trehalose, glycogen, simple sugars, and lipids using biochemical assays. The development of Megachile rotundata was stimulated for two weeks before interrupting with either fluctuating or static temperature regimes. RQ was measured repeatedly over two weeks and subsets of bees from each treatment were frozen at the same time points for biochemical analyses. The RQ varied over time and lipids and trehalose had the biggest differences between static and fluctuating temperatures as well as over time.
Environmental Factors Influencing Tumor Associated Pericyte Phenotype in Pancreatic Cancer
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Delgado, Alexander
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the third leading cause of cancer death in the U.S. with a 5-year survival rate of 11%. PDAC patients suffer from the lack of effective treatment options largely due to the limited delivery efficacy of the drugs. Tumor vessels are abnormal, leaky, and lack proper pericyte coverage, contributing to elevated hypoxia and interstitial fluid pressure, promoting cancer progression and metastasis, and inhibiting drug delivery efficacy. In the case of PDAC, a large portion of blood vessels were covered by α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) expressing pericyte, which is normally absent in capillary pericytes. We also showed that PDAC cancer cell-derived exosomes could induce αSMA expression in the pericyte suggesting the pericyte phenotype is influenced by the Tumor Microenvironment (TME). Induced αSMA expression in pericyte disrupted the 3D tube formation efficiency when cultured with endothelial cells suggesting αSMAhigh pericyte confers a pathological feature of tumor blood vessels.
Environmental Impacts on Behavior and Personality in the Caviomorph Rodent, Octodon degus
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Johnson, Nicholas Edwin
Environmental factors can have large impacts in shaping the way that animals behave. Biotic elements, such as predators and conspecifics that individuals interact with, are two environmental factors that animals may encounter on a regular basis. Here, we present the results of two studies examining the relationship of these biotic factors to behavior and personality in the degu (Octodon degus), a social rodent species endemic to central Chile. We found that long-term experimental isolation from predators has not impacted behavior, as indicated by an open field test in this species. We also found that social groups in this species do not adhere to either conformity or social niche specialization expectations with regard to personality, as determined in open field tests. These results raise further questions as to the mechanisms that govern behavior, as well as how personality evolved and is maintained in natural populations.
Establishing and Characterizing Patient-Derived Breast Cancer Cell Lines
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Mohammadi, Farid Solaymani
Commercial cancer cell lines have long been extensively used as an important platform to study cancer. They have contributed to a plethora of discoveries in the field of cancer research. However, there are limitations with using these cell lines, such as induced mutations over the long-term in vitro culture. These mutations cause incorrect exhibition of the in vivo characteristics of the cancer cells. Here, we focused on establishing Patient-derived breast cancer cell lines and attempted to characterize them in terms of several biomarkers that are shown to be overexpressed in breast cancer cells. Patient-derived breast cancer cell lines are more reliable tools to study the molecular and cellular processes taking place in vivo, since they are freshly isolated from the tumor biopsy and do not undergo induced immortalization. We explored the CK19, Ki67, vimentin, EpCAM, E-cadherin, and N-cadherin expression in three successfully established patient-derived breast cancer cell lines.
The Evaluation of Christmas Bird Counts as an Indicator of Population Trends and Habitat Selection in Blackbirds and Starlings
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Strassburg, Matthew D.
Agelaius phoeniceus (red-winged blackbird), Quiscalus quiscula (common grackle), and Sturnus vulgaris (European starling) are three of the most abundant bird species found in North America, and along with Euphagus carolinus (rusty blackbird) and Euphagus cyanocephalus (Brewer’s blackbird), make up a significant proportion of the avian population. Population trends of these four blackbird species and European starlings (EUST)were analyzed from the Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data collected between 1988 and 2008. Population analyses were conducted using linear mixed-effect regressions from the Lmer package of Program R. This approach was effective in modeling the population trends of widespread species with large populations. However, it was not as effective in modeling species with smaller populations and distributions. Only RWBL had significant change in population during the study period, showing a positive increase in mean count number of approximately 2.4% each year. Habitat selection showed some parallels among species.
Evidence of Climate Niche Creation in the Northern Great Plains: The History of Invasion, Population Genetics, Competitive Effect, and Long-Term Trends of Invasive Poa Pratensis L.
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Dennhardt, Lauren Alexsandra
Understanding the mechanisms of invasion is critical in order to control an invasive species. Poa pratensis L. (Kentucky bluegrass) is an invasive species that has been present in the northern Great Plains (NGP) for over 100 years, but has become a dominant species in the mixed grass region recently. My dissertation seeks to answer one critical question—why has P. pratensis become such a successful invasive species in the NGP? I first asked if the invasion was caused by adaptation and/or propagule pressure. I screened the genetic fingerprint of invasive P. pratensis in the NGP along with measuring the genomic content of wild plants and compared them to common cultivars. I found virtually no overlap between lawn cultivars and invasive P. pratensis populations. This was further supported by a narrow range of genomic content in wild individuals compared to the lawn cultivars. I also found no evidence of geographical patterning which is consistent with the hypothesis that local adaptation is not pervasive in P. pratensis. I then asked whether P. pratensis was a strong competitor compared to dominant plant species native to the tallgrass prairie. I studied competitive effect between Poa pratensis, Nassella viridula, Pascopyrum smithii, and Bouteloua gracilis through a species-pair competition experiment. Based on the relative interaction indices, P. smithii and P. pratensis were competitive against B. gracilis, and P. smithii was competitive against N. viridula. Additionally, P. pratensis was facilitated by all three species in the experiment. This study indicates that P. pratensis may be somewhat competitive. Finally, I asked whether the increase in the frequency of P. pratensis in the NGP may be attributed to environmental factors. In order to understand long-term correlations between P. pratensis invasion and environmental variables, I resampled plots that were previously sampled for species composition in 1978, 1979, and 1999. I found that P. pratensis levels did increase across plots and was corrrelated with higher levels of precipitation. My research indicates that increased precipitation in the NGP as a result of climate change is correlated with P. pratensis invasion in the NGP.
Expression of HIF-1 Alpha and HIF-1 Beta in Insects Throughout Juvenile Development
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Lundquist, Taylor Alexandra
Insects grow exponentially from hatching to adult. This growth is punctuated by periodic molts during which the exoskeleton, including the large airways of the respiratory system, is enlarged and replaced. Major tracheae increase in size after molting, fixing gas exchange capacity within an instar. Therefore, I hypothesize that larvae may become hypoxic at the end of each instar. One regulator of responses to hypoxia is the oxygen-sensing protein complex hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1). In hypoxia, HIF-1α and HIF1β dimerize to form the HIF-1 complex, a transcription factor that controls expression of hypoxia-responsive genes. To test my hypothesis, I measured gene expression of HIF-1α and HIF-1β across various stages of larval development in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. As predicted, levels of HIF-1α and HIF-1β increase within an instar and decrease after molting. Understanding normal development of insect respiratory systems is important, because insects are crop pests and critical pollinators.
Influence of Adjacent Uplands and Groundwater on the Hydrology and Invertebrate Community Composition of Seasonal Forest Ponds in North Central Minnesota
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Bischof, Matthew Markus
Seasonal ponds are common throughout northern Minnesota's forested areas. Seasonal ponds typically flood due to snow-melt and high precipitation rates in early spring, then dry by mid-late summer. The dynamic hydroperiods of seasonal ponds create a unique fishless habitat hosting an abundance of many endemic aquatic species. Hydroperiod has long been considered a major controller of biological communities in seasonal ponds, but few data are available for testing hydrological linkages among seasonal ponds, their surrounding watersheds and their resident invertebrate communities. To identify hydrological pond function, I placed peizometers and monitoring wells in 8 sites in the Buena Vista State Forest in Beltrami County, MN, and 8 sites in the Paul Bunyan State Forest in Hubbard County, MN (16 sites total). Water levels were monitored weekly (2006-2009) from spring melt until ponds dried and water tables fell below readable depths. Invertebrate communities were also sampled weekly during 2008 and 2009. Results indicate that high but variable water exchange occurs between seasonal ponds and ground water. Hydrological patterns of seasonal ponds were related to several physical parameters including hydrological function, maximum depth, and canopy cover. Most relationships appear to be consistent between the 2 forest areas; however, some differences are notable, such as soil characteristics and influence of pond surface area on hydroperiod. Patterns in pond invertebrate communities were also related to hydrological function and hydroperiod, and these patterns appear consistent between the 2 forest areas, suggesting that many invertebrates are generalist users of these areas.
Investigation of the Nature of Science Views of Undergraduate Natural Science and Nonscience Majors in Biology Courses
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Miller, Marie Christine Desaulniers
Science educators have the common goal of helping students develop scientific literacy, including understanding of the nature of science (NOS). University faculties are challenged with the need to develop informed NOS views in several major student subpopulations, including science majors and nonscience majors. Research into NOS views of undergraduates, particularly science majors, has been limited. In this study, NOS views of undergraduates in introductory environmental science and upper-level animal behavior courses were measured using Likert items and open-ended prompts. Analysis revealed similarities in students' views between the two courses; both populations held a mix of naYve, transitional, and moderately informed views. Comparison of pre- and postcourse mean scores revealed significant changes in NOS viev .. 's only in select aspects of NOS. Student scores on sections addressing six aspects of NOS were significantly different in most cases, showing notably uninformed views of the distinctions between scientific theories and laws. Evidence-based insight into student NOS views can aid in reforming undergraduate science courses and will add to faculty and researcher understanding of the impressions of science held by undergraduates, helping educators improve scientific literacy in future scientists and diverse college graduates.

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