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Item Whole Wheat Milling and Baking Studies of Hard Red Spring Wheat(North Dakota State University, 2016) Khalid, KhairunizahEnd product quality of whole wheat bread is affected by many complex parameters. The milling method and chemical composition of bran both affect whole wheat bread quality. When using a centrifugal mill, the combination of low tempering moisture level and high rotor speed produced whole-wheat flour with fine particle size, desirable whole-wheat flour quality, manageable dough, and high loaf volume. Fine bran powder was produced with the combination of low tempering moisture level, low feed rate, and high rotor speed. It was also determined that flour attached to bran affects the bran powder’s temperature, protein content, and starch content. Study of the impact of bran components on whole-wheat bread revealed that fiber (FB) highly impacted gluten quality, farinograph parameters, gassing power, oven spring, loaf volume, and bread crumb protein solubility. FB interacted with other bran components (oils, extractable and hydrolysable phenolics) to increase polymeric protein solubility in bread crumb. Hydrolysable phenolics (HP) improved the farinograph stability. However, the interaction of FB with other components decreased bread loaf volume, especially for the interaction of FB-HP. The baking method and the type of wheat used for whole-wheat bread are also important factors to evaluate whole-wheat bread quality. Sponge-and-dough (SpD), straight dough (StD), and no-time dough (NoD) methods were compared. StD had the highest variation in baking mix time, baked weight, crumb grain score, and symmetry score compared to other baking methods. The StD method was the most sensitive method to distinguish variation in whole-wheat flour samples. Location and cultivar effects were investigated for whole-wheat bread quality. Twenty-one hard red spring wheat cultivars grown at 6 locations across North Dakota were evaluated for whole-wheat bread quality. Location contributed 89% to the variability in whole-wheat baking absorption. Cultivar contributed 47% and 41% to the variability in whole-wheat loaf volume and loaf symmetry, respectively. Loaf volume and crumb color were largely under genetic control, and breeders can aim at high loaf volume in whole wheat bread made from hard spring wheat. Overall, whole-wheat flour and bread quality are greatly affected by: milling method, bran composition, baking method, as well as the environment and genotype.Item Genetics and Quantitative Trait Loci Mapping of Septoria Tritici Blotch Resistance, Agronomic, and Quality Traits in Wheat(North Dakota State University, 2013) Harilal, Vibin EranezhathMost breeding programs aim at developing superior germplasm and better cultivars that combine high yield, disease and pest resistance, and end-use quality to satisfy the requirements of the growers as well as industry. A population, consisting of 138 F2-8 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from a cross between ‘Steele-ND’ and ND 735, was evaluated to study the inheritance pattern of the septoria tritici blotch (STB)-resistant genes, agronomic and quality traits. The framework map made of 392 markers, including 28 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and 364 DArT markers, spanned a total distance of 1789.3 cM and consisted of 17 linkage groups. The map position of quantitative trait loci (QTL) found in this study coincided with the map position of durable STB resistance genes, Stb1. Thirteen QTL were detected for agronomic and quality traits. More saturation of the current map is needed to explore more QTL for this population.Item Improvement of the Physicochemical Attributes and Antioxidants Profiles from Pulse Seeds through Germination(North Dakota State University, 2019) Xu, MinweiEdible pulse seeds are good sources of food ingredients. Germination has been regarded as an effective process to further improve nutrient digestibility and accessibility of pulse seeds. Our aim was to observe the effect of germination on proximate composition, physicochemical attributes, and phenolic profiles of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Merr.), and yellow pea (Pisum sativum L.). In addition, mechanisms of how germination affects the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds were proposed. Chemical composition, thermal, pasting, and moisture adsorption properties of pulse flours were investigated over 6 days of germination. Protein contents increased by 3 percent points for all pulses over germination. However, lentil had the highest protein content. Lipid contents decreased over germination with chickpea having the greatest decline, from 8.00 to 5.90 g/100g (d.b.). Total starch decreased in lentil and yellow pea during germination. Thermal properties of pulse flours changed slightly, while pasting properties varied among pulses. The highest final viscosities for chickpea, lentil, and yellow pea flours were 1061, 981, and 1052 cP and were observed after 2, 1, and 0 days of germination, respectively. Moisture adsorption isotherms showed improved water adsorption capabilities after germination. Soluble free (SFPs) and polar soluble bound phenolic compounds (PSBPs) were extracted from germinated pulse seeds. Their antioxidant activities were evaluated using both the in vitro system and stripped soybean oil (SSO)-in-water emulsions. Liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and size-exclusion chromatography with multiangle-light-scattering and refractive-index detection were employed to analyze the phenolic composition and molar mass, respectively. Antioxidant activities of SFPs increased in both in vitro and SSO-in-water emulsion system, however, much lower than those of PSBPs based on SSO-in-water emulsion system. The effect of germination on PSBPs in SSO-in-water emulsion varied between pulses. By virtue of chemometric analysis, nine phenolic compounds were speculated as the pivotal phenolic compounds responsible for the antioxidant activity of PSBPs. In particular, the molar masses of PSBPs had a positive relationship with their antioxidant activity. Protective and co-antioxidative principles were proposed as reasons for the variability of antioxidant activities of PSBPs in oil-in-water emulsions with germination.Item Factors Affecting Grapevine Establishment in Northern Production Regions(North Dakota State University, 2011) Stenger, John EdwardTwo experiments were conducted to detect differences in growth and cold hardiness during establishment of northern grown wine grapevines. One experiment tested the use of four grow tube treatments and two pruning levels on vine establishment in the upper Midwest. The variables included leaf area, stem height, root growth, phenology, and hardiness. Overall, few significant differences occurred among treatments where grow tubes were utilized. In the second season, vines without grow tubes had superior measurements in nearly all leaf area categories. For this reason, it is recommended that growers refrain from grow tube use during establishment in northern growing regions. Vines pruned to three buds after transplanting varied little from those without pruning. For this reason, it is recommended that growers utilize the most efficient early pruning strategy for their particular situation. Another experiment was conducted to determine the effectiveness of different weed control measures. This experiment compared three kinds of mulches and an herbicide treatment on the growth and establishment of four wine grape varieties. Annual weed control, plant growth, phenology, soil water content and temperature, and vine hardiness were measured. Overall, vines receiving mulch had more consistent annual weed control and reduced early season growth when compared to chemically treated vines. For this reason, mulch is recommended in the vineyard for annual weed control during establishment in situations where vigor is not unacceptably low.Item Identification and mapping of QTL associated with crown rust resistance in recombinant inbred lines of oat (Avena sativa L.)(North Dakota State University, 2024) Yeruva, Cerly RiniCrown rust caused by Puccinia coronata f.sp. avenae is the most destructive fungal disease threatening oat production worldwide. Therefore, a search for novel sources of genetic resistance is considered essential to combat the evolving races of pathogen. The objectives of this study were to develop two recombinant inbred line mapping populations carrying novel sources of crown rust resistance and identify the genomic regions associated with crown rust resistance. 108 and 112 F5:6 RILs developed from each of the bi-parental crosses were evaluated for disease incidence in field and greenhouse under randomized complete block experimental designs with two replications. Genotyping and linkage analysis of markers associated with RILs revealed a major QTL underlying disease resistance in each population respectively. The two QTL identified in this study showed consistency across all the tested locations and the markers associated with the QTL appear to be useful for marker-assisted selection in oat breeding programs.Item Optimizing Winter Camelina Production as a Cover Crop In North Dakota(North Dakota State University, 2020) Wittenberg, Alex Shawn RobertWinter camelina [Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz] has gained particular interested from producers and researchers in the northern Great Plains and local production information is critical. Without a correct sowing date plant stand establishment can be challenging. Morphological differences between winter- and summer-biotypes of camelina can allow producers and researchers to distinguish the two biotypes. Visible and non-visible seed differences can offer effective means to distinguish the two biotypes. Seed quality of camelina is crucial. Sowing in September until the first week of October had similar seed yield. Morphological differences in the upper most developed leaves of camelina seedling can be used to distinguish the two biotypes. Field grown samples of camelina can be analyzed to determine if the seed is winter or summer biotype or a mix of both and we developed a near infrared spectroscopy protocol to determine seed composition of intact camelina seeds.Item Evaluation of Pea Protein and Modified Pea Protein as Egg Replacers(North Dakota State University, 2012) Hoang, Hieu DuyNative yellow pea (Pisum sativum) protein isolates (PPIs) showed good foaming and emulsifying properties but a poor gelling characteristic. However, this can be corrected by Transglutaminase (TGase) treatment. PPIs were obtained using alkaline extraction method in which extracting pH, precipitating pH, flour–to–water ratio, and extraction time were optimized to obtain maximum yields and least change in protein functionalities. Extraction pH of 10.0, precipitating pH of 4.3, flour–to–water ratio of 1:6, and 30 minute extraction time were found to be optimum values for pea protein extraction. SDS–PAGE gels showed that the PPI had a very similar protein molecular weight profile as its original flour. TGase treatment was applied on PPIs at different pH levels from 4.3 to 7.0. The SDS–PAGE and RVA tests showed that treatment at pH 6.0 provided the best overall functionality. Large molecular weight (MW) proteins (~ 90,000 Da) and medium MW proteins (~50,000 – 80,000 Da) were the main substrates for TGase catalyzed reaction whereas most low MW the proteins (< 45,000 Da) were not involved. RVA results indicated that treatments at pH 6.0 and 7.0 had the highest viscosities but the treatment at pH 6.0 had better stability and consistency. Functionality tests indicated that modified PPIs possessed a better viscosity profile than the native PPIs but no improvement in gelling capacity and only minor impact on foaming and emulsifying properties. PPIs performance greatly depended on their final pHs. The foaming capacity, foaming stability, and emulsion capacity were significantly improved when the final pH of PPIs was adjusted from 4.3 to 7.0. The overall sensory evaluation results suggested that TGase–treated PPIs and PPIs were not yet able to replace egg in the cake system. Only PPI can replace egg in the cookie system. TGase–treated samples had a lower acceptability due to an “off–taste” and a “strange” flavor. Future work, therefore, should study TGase combined with other treatments to further improve PPIs functionalities. Purification should be integrated into extraction process and other food systems should also be included to extent the scope and role of modified PPIs in food industry.Item Identification of Molecular Markers Linked to X-Disease Resistance in Chokecherry(North Dakota State University, 2012) Wang, HongxiaX-disease, caused by phytoplasmas, is one of the destructive diseases in stone fruit trees, causing yield loss and poor fruit quality. So far no effective methods are available to control X-disease. X-disease resistance has been first discovered in chokecherry (Prunus virginiana, 2n=4x=32), which is a native woody species of North America. To identify molecular markers linked to X-disease resistance, simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were used to construct genetic linkage maps for chokecherry and to identify markers associated with X-disease resistance in chokecherry. In this research, three segregating populations of chokecherry were developed by crossing one X-disease resistant (CL) with three susceptible chokecherry lines (a, c, and d), of which the progenies were 101, 177, and 82, respectively. In order to construct a genetic map for chokecherry, 108 pairs of SSR primers were employed from other Prunus species. Additionally, a set of 246 SSRs were developed from chokecherry sequencing by Roche 454 sequencing technology. A total of 354 pairs of SSR primers were used to screen individuals of all three populations. Two software programs, TetraploidMap and JoinMap, were used to construct linkage map based on single-dose restriction fragments (SDRFs) and two parental linkage maps were generated for each population from both software programs. Bulked segregant analysis (BSA) was applied for identification of X-disease resistance markers. As a result, one SSR marker was found to be linked to the X-disease resistance. The set of 246 chokecherry SSRs was later used to test transferability among another 11 rosaceous species (sour cherry, sweet cherry, wild cherry, peach, apricot, plum, apple, crabapple, pear, june berry, and raspberry). As a result, chokecherry SSR primers can be transferable in Prunus species or other rosaceous species. An average of 63.2% and 58.7% of amplifiable chokecherry primers amplified DNA from cherry and other Prunus species, respectively, while 47.2% of amplifiable chokecherry primers can be transferable to other rosaceous species. The genetic information, including genetic map, disease linked marker, chokecherry sequence, and confirmed transferability of the identified chokecherry SSRs to other species, will benefit the genetic research in Prunus and other rosaceous species.Item Kentucky Bluegrass Establishment Under Saline, Waterlogging, and Saline-Waterlogging Conditions(North Dakota State University, 2022) Rue, KevinKentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) (KBG) is commonly used for golf fairways, however, it is sensitive to salinity and waterlogging. The objectives of this research were to determine (1) KBG growth response to saline, waterlogging, and saline-waterlogging conditions and (2) efficacy of seed priming in stress enhancement. Nine KBG cultivars were subjected to the aforementioned stresses at the seedling stage for four weeks. The combined saline-waterlogging caused more severe damage than individual stress. ‘Sudden Impact’, ‘Award’, ‘Limousine’, and ‘Kenblue’ were relatively tolerant to the stresses based on results from tissue biomass, root length, and specific root length stresses, while ‘Moonlight’ and ‘Blue Note’ were relatively sensitive. Seeds primed with abscisic acid, glycinebetaine, polyethylene glycol, and water performed better or similar to the non-primed grasses. Use of relatively tolerant cultivars, alone or in combination with priming, may be a better management practice when establishing a turfgrass stand under stress.Item Investigation of a Novel Foliar Disease on Maackia amurensis in North Dakota and Its Subsequent Survey(North Dakota State University, 2023) Steffen, Sarah ElizabethA new, undescribed pathogen was observed on Maackia amurensis (Amur maackia or Chinese yellow wood) trees in Fargo, North Dakota, over the course of four growing seasons from 2016 to 2020. Affected trees showed visual signs of necrotic lesions ringed with a yellow halo of various sizes on leaves which began in midsummer and persisted into the fall. Diseased material was collected in October 2020, from which single spore isolations were taken. After a third-party DNA analysis, the causal agent was tentatively identified as an Alternaria species. Curious about the full extent of the host and fungal pathogen, a survey was designed and distributed to horticulture industry professionals, botanical gardens, and arboreta in September 2021. The survey results showed where M. amurensis, its cultivars, and related species were growing and where similar symptoms were observed in other regions throughout the United States.