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Item Running Wild, Running Free?: Changing Perceptions of Wild Horses in the American Landscape(North Dakota State University, 2014) Mott, Andrea LynnSince the 1930s, wild horses have become a subject of public concern. They are often showcased as symbols representing the historic past of the western United States. More recently they have become symbols of a mythic, or imagined, west. Writers, scholars, politicians, advocates, ranchers, and land managers are among the few groups who have taken a role in the livelihood of these animals living freely on public rangelands. The protection movement that began in the 1950s and carried over into the 1970s ultimately resulted in the passage of the 1971 Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act. This act placed all wild horses living on public rangelands under the protection of the Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service. Before this legislation individuals in the West could round up wild horses without interference. Afterwards, only the federal government and appointed contractors were allowed to do this. As a result of all the policy changes people in the general public began learning more about the wild horse situation in the United States. Perceptions regarding wild horses have undergone some change since the passage of the 1934 Taylor Grazing Act. Case studies contained in this dissertation provide examples of perceptions in different parts of the country. The personal narratives gathered from these areas are analyzed as essential pieces to the wild horse dilemma. They help provide an additional lens through which scholars can examine the changing perceptions regarding wild horses. The second section of this dissertation delves into the developmental stages of wild horse protection in the United States. Advocates, activists, and politicians sometimes view the subject in varying ways and those are examined. Legislation, slaughter, holding facilities, and adoption methods are a few of the main areas analyzed within this section. As times have changed it has become necessary to reform and adapt under the Act of 1971. Doing this could ensure the future of wild horses living in the United States. Perceptions about them have changed, and it is still a subject wrought with emotion, but American identity is still connected to their aesthetic appeal.Item Transformations of the Red River Valley of the North: An Environmental History(North Dakota State University, 2016) Brokke, Kathleen Ruth GilmoreThis environmental history of the Red River Valley from the mid 1850s – 2000 encompasses those who lived in this tallgrass prairie region and asks how did they live within this environment? In addition, it seeks to understand how they utilized their surrounding natural world. Beyond this, with less than 1 percent of the tallgrass prairie remaining, this work showcases an important aspect of our region few know. Why is this important? The tallgrass helped create the fertile soil, which is the major reason for the high yields of wheat and other crops, and agriculture is the major industry in this region. Also, many of the native plants that once grew abundantly were eaten as food or used as medicine. A ‘cornucopia’ of food existed in this region. There is a loss in our Red River Valley that few know. This region was actually a complex environment, which looked remarkably simple to most who viewed the ‘sea of waving grass.’ This environmental history researches the changes to the surrounding tallgrasses, wetlands, and rivers, as transitions occurred from Native American to Euro-American settlers who adjusted to this new prairie environment, changing the natural world in the process as well. Geology and geography help us to understand the issues of floods in this very young river valley. This research also addresses how changes since the early 1900s have dramatically altered our rivers and wetlands, which were a major part of this landscape, and how this has impacted our lives today. My original quest was to discover how this region appeared with its differing grasses and forbs, riparian forests along the rivers, and the thriving wildlife – bison, deer, elk, bears, wolves, and coyotes. In addition, I sought to understand how others had lived here before Euro- Americans settled in this Red River Valley. All of this is important for us to better understand our environment and ourselves and to learn from our past for our present lives as well. This is a very unique environment and we are wealthy beyond measure in our residence upon it.Item Settler Colonizers’ Sense of History on the Northern Plains Before and After the Turn of the Nineteenth Century(North Dakota State University, 2022) Barth, Aaron LorenThis dissertation argues that it is time to push the understanding of the US Oceti Sakowin wars in different directions, particularly in the direction that stops obsessing and constantly revisiting the officer and soldier accounts. More particularly, it is argued, it is time to push in the direction that looks at how and why settler colonizers – scholars, artists, historians, poets – before and after the turn of the nineteenth century contemplated and argued over various ways to interpret the 1854- 1891 US Oceti Sakowin wars. Through this, they infused a sense of history into the landscape of the northern plains. The dialog they established created a foundation for how and why the US Oceti Sakowin wars is remembered today in the second decade of the twenty first century.Item Lawton's Bloodhounds: Indigenous Recruits in the Service of the United States Army in the Philippine American War, 1899-1902(North Dakota State University, 2021) Butcher, Carole IreneFollowing the Spanish American War, the United States became embroiled in a guerrilla war with Filipino insurgents who had sought independence from Spain. They objected to the purchase of the Philippine Islands by the United States. The result was the Philippine American War, 1899-1902. At that time, the United States Army had no written doctrine and provided no formal training in the prosecution of a guerrilla war. This study traces American success in the Philippines to reliance on a proven technique utilized by colonial armies of the period: recruitment of native allies. American General Henry Ware Lawton served in the Indian Wars. He was directly responsible for the surrender of Apache leader Geronimo, who surrendered after Lawton’s dogged pursuit over thousands of miles. Lawton was assisted by Apache scouts. In the Philippines, he recognized how advantageous it would be to have the support of indigenous recruits. General Lawton was the driving force behind the development of an indigenous force that altered the way in which the United States Army approached irregular warfare. Relying on an examination of primary sources including letters, diaries, official reports, and newspaper articles, this dissertation explains American success in the Philippine American War in the context of global imperialism and the colonial practice of depending on indigenous recruits.Item The Upper Musselshell Valley: A Grassroots and Bioregional History(North Dakota State University, 2012) Lewis, Miles DwightThe Upper Musselshell Valley: A Grassroots and Bioregional History chronicles the history of central Montana's Upper Musselshell Valley in an attempt to craft a viable history of region. As a corrective measure or alternate explanation that revises not only historical interpretation, but also takes into account who, or what group, is the driving force behind each distinct narrative stream (i.e. grand narrative history--histories penned by professional scholars and academics--or grassroots perspectives, the history of region as told by local dwellers), which stream is or is not authoritative, and how to modify, adjust, or meld the various interpretations in order to arrive at a more judicious, perceptive, and democratic version of history. The New Regional History is a coalescence of the grand narrative, the grassroots perspective, bioregionalism, and memory studies that is concerned with humankind's interaction with the physical environment, and the succession of cultures within that environment. It examines the use of historical memory in the creation of regional identity in order to expose and explain regional anomalies while providing synthesis and maintaining a stance of critical scholarship. This is much more than a localized case study; it is a novel approach to the history of region that incorporates local and professional scholarship in order craft a much more viable and judicious history of place. The Upper Musselshell Valley of central Montana provides a strong proving ground for a New Regional History. It is a place rich in regional history and lore, provided by a long tradition of local narrators, while fitting within most of the grand narrative paradigms of Montana and the Great Plains in general. As with most comparable regions within the Great Plains, the Upper Musselshell Valley has never been held up to such a standard.Item The Tides of the Tourism Complex at La Paz, Mexico(North Dakota State University, 2013) Dutton, AnthonyBy 1940, the outlying Mexican territory of Baja California Sur faced an uncertain future. The extractive industries of mining and pearling had collapsed in the southern areas of the peninsula, and the remaining economic activities of agriculture and fishing held little prospect for growing the population and fueling development. The solution adopted by local government, boosters, and the federal government was to promote international tourism. The rise of the tourism complex at La Paz represented a local response to the regional problems of economic underdevelopment and isolation, and its decline began with the intense federal involvement in funding the comprehensive tourist center at Los Cabos. From the 1940s through the late 1960s, La Paz tourism represented a sustainable model, rooted in place while maintaining and benefitting from the existing characteristics of Baja California Sur. Experiencing transition in the late 1960s and 1970s, Los Cabos underwent a transformation into a sun-and-sand mega-resort, and La Paz shifted to host a wave of national tourists attracted to the free trade zone. The region entered a phase of frenzied expansion of tourism infrastructure, but the inability to sustain this boom led to a bust in La Paz tourism in the early 1980s, and the regional dominance of Los Cabos. The decline of La Paz tourism during that period deepened as the national government gave priority to the development of Los Cabos, creating a tourist pole built along the same model as Cancún.Item An Unintended Activist: Judge Ronald N. Davies and the Influence of the Northern Plains on Twentieth-Century Civil Rights and Judicial Progressivism(North Dakota State University, 2020) Reikowsky, Stacy MichelleA devotion to an open and progressive interpretation of human rights and the law secured Judge Ronald N. Davies’ legacy as an unintended, yet influential activist for advancing civil rights and of the twentieth century. His views helped change the definition and meaning of judicial activism in the modern vernacular and transform it into a new notion of judicial progressivism. A biography of Davies crystallizes the meaning of the racial and civil relations across an evolving American landscape. A study of his life alters the way in which scholars and the public perceive and understand the role of the Northern Plain in shaping lasting changes in America’s progressive movements through an interdisciplinary approach of history and law. When Davies of Fargo, North Dakota, rose to the bench of the United States District Court, he ceased any formal political party affiliation and became a Constitutionalist. With an egalitarian approach to the law, he oversaw numerous court proceedings and handed down rulings with measured consideration for any case that appeared on his docket. As his federal appointment came to include cases involving the desegregation of public schools, civil lawsuits against large-scale corporations, and the Alcatraz Indian Occupation, Davies’ sphere of influence exceeded regional and Civil Rights Era boundaries and characterized him as national figure in new facets of legal precedent. His rulings challenged traditional ethics as dictated by society’s majority-consent in the law and cast him as a seminal figure that embodied the meaning and influence of the northern plains within the law and advancing civil rights and social justice in the United States. His efforts to uphold a more inclusive and equal legal standard set into motion renewed consideration of the ways in which an individual’s actions within a broader institution can stimulate a modern national consensus despite entrenched historical precedent. Therefore, Davies’ life and career reflect a historical sensibility of the role, application, and influence of law-based code of ethics. His decisions, though not intended as overt civil activism, instilled lasting social, cultural, and political change in twentieth-century civil rights.Item "The Indians may be led, but will not be drove": The Creek Nation's Struggle for Control of Its Destiny, 1783-1795(North Dakota State University, 2016) Cummings, WilliamHistory tends to portray the interactions between Euro-American settlers and native Indian Nations as one in which Euro-American settlers imposed dominance on the Indians. This work takes an in-depth look at the relationship between the Creek Nation and the Euro-American settlers of Georgia in the early years of the American republic and shows the Creeks in control of their own destiny, as well as the destiny of Georgia and the young republic. The core argument is that the nature of the Creek nation allowed them to maintain autonomy while affecting the physical development of the United States. From Massachusetts to Carolina various Native American nations had tried to fend off Euro-American expansion but were forced off their land in short order. The Creek Nation considered Georgia and its settlers to be usurpers without valid claim to Indian land, and put forth a near impenetrable defense of their claim for over a decade. The Creeks steadfastly maintained their claim to the land between the Ogeechee River and the Oconee River, and declared war to enforce the boundary on their terms. In their struggle, primarily with the state of Georgia, new leaders emerged and new polities replaced old traditions. This was a significant accomplishment when one considers the lack of any form of political unity around which to take a stand against the expansionist plans of Georgia. This study will show that the Creeks succeeded because a common determination united the nation in its opposition to Georgia’s attempts to take their land, while its political disunity prevented any group less than the whole from negotiating effectively concerning their land.Item A History of North Dakota's Petroleum Industry, 1917-2017(North Dakota State University, 2022) Herz, Clarence AnthonyNorth Dakota’s petroleum industry can be traced back to 1917, when Arthur Blum found a small amount of oil in a well drilled to water his cattle. The unsuccessful exploration for oil continued from 1917 until 1951, when on April 4, oil was produced, in commercial quantities, from the Clarence Iverson #1 well. The discovery well initiated the state’s first boom, and after several other wells began production, the state began construction of industry infrastructure. This discovery boom lasted until 1966, when a global oil glut reduced exploration and production slowed. In the 1970s, as a result of OPEC’s manipulation of petroleum markets, the state would again experience a boom in its petroleum industry. This boom was short-lived, however, and ended abruptly and painfully. Government deregulation of the industry, coupled with Middle East tensions easing, caused foreign petroleum to produce once again a global glut in oil which caused prices to fall dramatically. After nearly two decades of anemic production, innovations in technology led to a third and significantly larger, more dramatic boom that saw growth in every aspect of life in western North Dakota. This occurred while the state also enjoyed an increase in agricultural prices and robust crop production. This boom saw intermittent busts in 2008-09 and 2014-15. Predictably, prices fall when oil is oversupplied, and rise when demand increases. The men and women of North Dakota, through each of these periods, have learned some valuable lessons, but despite that, they often continued to make many of the same mistakes. Sometimes they have learned from these mistakes and acknowledged the potential to do better, and sometimes, as in the case of the state’s budget, continue to do things the exact same way, hoping for different results.Item Farming Democracy: American Agricultural Policy from the Great War to the Great Society(North Dakota State University, 2020) Biles, Amanda BelleIn the days of the early republic, agriculture provided more than just an economic foundation; it shaped the country socially, and politically, too. Thomas Jefferson and others wrote at length of the role farming played in the American moral and political order, but by the turn of the twentieth century, agriculture’s share of the overall economy had declined, even as it became enmeshed in the emerging class question that was convulsing US politics. Farm policy followed that shift. While many historians of agricultural policy in the twentieth century limited their studies to the so-called farm bills and thus saw only commodity policy, US agricultural policy from Woodrow Wilson to Lyndon Johnson constituted a massive intervention in the lives and experiences of rural Americans. During this period, policymakers moved purposefully and emphatically beyond commodity concerns and aimed to remake rural life and farmer identity in the United States. They held as their model Thomas Jefferson’s agrarian ideal, a nation of freeholders deeply invested in the preservation of the republic and their own contributions to its success. However, the Wilson administration and its successors went beyond Jeffersonian laissez faire to build a farm policy rooted in the worldview and methods of the Progressive movement: middle class values, concern for social uplift, a growing civil service bureaucracy, and modern scientific and statistical tools. These administrations demonstrated clear intent to wield farm identity as a tool of democratization, growth, and national cohesion not only within the American countryside, but in the nation at large and then around the globe.