Psychology Doctoral Work

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Neural Synchrony and Asynchrony as Mechanisms for Perceptual Grouping and Segmentation
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Clarke, Aaron
The question of whether neural synchrony has functional significance for cortical processing has been an issue of contention in the recent scientific literature. Although the balance of evidence now seems to be favoring a vie,v that synchrony does indeed play a significant functional role, this role's mechanisms and its behavioral consequences have not been fully elucidated. In this research I add to the growing body of evidence in favor of a significant functional role for neural synchrony in cortical processing. By leveraging a modified version of Cheadle, Bauer, Parton, Muller, Bonneh and Usher (2008)'s psychophysical paradigm and through experiments of own design, I find evidence suggesting that when contrast oscillations serve as inputs to the visual system, the system produces behavior that may be more synchronous than the stimulus or less synchronous than the stimulus depending on whether or not the oscillations occur on elements of a common object or on elements of separate objects respectively. The current paradigm has the potential to test behavioral manifestations of the underlying neural dynamics that heretofore were largely thought to be confined to physiological measures. Furthermore, I provide a biophysical model that predicts this behavior and other related electrophysiological findings.
The Effects of Cultural Dispositions on Behavior in Social Dilemmas: Examining the Impact of Expectations on Cooperation and Competition
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Ladbury, Jared Lee
Many groups require cooperation in order to efficiently complete tasks in a manner that benefits all group members. The antecedents of cooperative and competitive behavior have been well studied using a particular class of problems called social dilemmas. Cultural variables, such as collectivism, are often thought to influence cooperative behavior in groups, but experimental evidence has seen mixed results. The current study attempts to add to our understanding of the effects of cultural variables on cooperative and competitive behavior in groups by advancing two major ideas: (1) that the Input-Process-Output (I-PO) framework-a theoretical framework of group functioning which proposes that group members' individual characteristics, dispositions, etc. influence the processes of groups when interacting which, in turn, impact the outcomes the group produces-can be used as a conceptualization for understanding the impact of cultural variables on potential group outcomes, provided that a distinction is made between potentially meaningful but taskunrelated distal inputs such as collectivism and task-related proximal inputs, and (2) that group process can be indexed using variance components calculated from the Social Relations Model (SRM}-a statistical tool used to analyze dyadic data. Using two social dilemmas as experimental media, participants were placed in groups of four and asked to report what they expected each of their group members to do during the social dilemmas and how much they trusted each of their fellow group members. Results demonstrate that collectivism increases the tendency to expect similar behavior from fellow group members and to trust fellow group members at similar levels when given little diagnostic information. In turn, more competitive behavior is demonstrated in groups that have members who all expect similar behavior from each group member, but show variability regarding what the behavior will be. The study demonstrates (1) a significant relationship between collectivism and expectations of other group members' behavior, (2) expectations will synthesize into meaningful variance components as calculated using SRM, (3) SRM variance components serve as useful indicators of group process and, (4) SRM variance components can be used to predict cooperative and competitive behavior in social dilemma situations. This research demonstrates the value of using SRM variances as indices of process and underscores the theoretical utility of the I-P-O framework as an explanatory tool of group behavior.
The Structure of Goals: Using Cybernetic Theory to Understand Behavior and Functioning
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Moeller, Sara Kimberly
While self-determination researchers emphasize the importance of pursuing internally motivated goals for self-regulation, cybernetic theorists instead highlight the structural features of goal systems and the manner in which such structural features should facilitate controlled behavior in daily life. However, it was our intuition that a consideration of both these literatures might best explain self-regulatory processes in daily life. Along these lines, we conducted two studies in which we measured the degree to which a person's goals are organized in hierarchical manner with respect to their intrinsic versus extrinsic properties. In Study 1, we found that individuals with hierarchical goal structures were less likely to experience increased motivation to quit following frustrating events. Consistent with this pattern, in Study 2 we found that negative feedback concerning goal progress adversely affected only those without hierarchical goal structures. Implications of these findings for perspectives on self-regulation are discussed, as well as potential new directions for testing cybernetic concepts within human functioning.
Modeling Approach Motivation in Terms of Perceptual Biases Involving Appetitive Stimuli
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Ode, Scott Byrum
Accumulating evidence suggests a potential relationship between approach motivation and perceptual enhancement. The current investigation was undertaken with the goal of exploring the causes of the phenomenon as well as implications for personality. Below, a model is introduced to help explain the causes and consequences of relations between approach motivation and perceptual size. Two studies are then presented testing a number of assumptions made by the model. In Study 1 (n = 78), state-related variations in approach motivation were manipulated with the intent of sensitizing the perceptual system to appetitive stimuli. It was predicted that such sensitization would result in greater size estimations. In Study 2 (n = 123), size overestimates were used to assess relations between daily events and outcomes. It was hypothesized that individual differences in size estimations for appetitive words (relative to neutral words) would predict daily motivations, emotion, and behaviors, as well as reactivity to daily events. In addition, several individual difference variables ostensibly related to dopamine activity were assessed in both studies and entered as moderators of the degree to which size overestimations varied by stimulus type. Many of the hypotheses were not supported, but size overestimations did, as hypothesized, moderate relations between positive events and goal-related motivation.
Group Marginalization Promotes Hostile Affect, Cognitions, and Behaviors
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Betts, Kevin Robert
The present research investigates relationships between group marginalization and hostility. In particular, I focus on the experiences of small, contained groups that are intentionally rejected by multiple out-group others. An integrative framework is proposed that attempts to explain how group processes influence (a) coping with threatened psychological needs following marginalization, (b) affective states, (c) cognitions regarding the marginalization and its source, and ultimately (d) hostile behavior. Study 1 describes a unique paradigm that effectively manipulates interpersonal rejection. Study 2 then implements this paradigm to empirically test relationships between the components of the integrative framework and examine differences among included and rejected individuals and groups. Results reveal partial support for the framework, particularly in regard to the impact of group marginalization on psychological needs and hostile affect, cognitions, and behaviors. Implications for natural groups such as terrorist cells, school cliques, and gangs are considered.
Studies of Visuospatial Attention
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Sosa Machado, Yamaya
Pseudoneglect (PN) reveals a contralateral bias in the deployment of visuospatial attention by the dominant (right) hemisphere. The magnitude of PN is phasically modulated by transient exogenous visual cues which automatically recruit attention to cued locations. Optimal cue-line onset asynchrony (SOA), cue-contrast of this cueing effect and the relative effectiveness of cue locations relative to line endpoints are unknown. Similarly, the direction of line scanning modulates the tonic bias, although the origin of this modulation is unknown. The present experiments aim at informing theories about visuospatial attention as well as some neurological conditions such as hemispatial neglect. Four experiments were conducted where observers performed a tachistoscopic visual line bisection task. In experiments 1-3, pretransected lines were preceded by peripheral cues delivered to the left and right line ends at a variety of (1) stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs), (2) contrasts and (3) horizontal positions relative to the line endpoints. Experiment 4 used a tachistoscopic line bisection protocol to manipulate the type (saccadic, smooth pursuit) and direction (leftward, rightward) of attentional scanning, executed with or without eye movements (overt, covert) while performing eye-tracking. Experiment 1 demonstrated early attentional capture with optimal cue-line SOA of 60 ms. Experiment 2 demonstrated that cue contrasts below 12% were ineffective in modulating perceived midpoint and the maximal effect occurred for cues of 100% contrast. Experiment 3 demonstrated modulation of the spatial error resulting from cues at all locations except the one lying completely beyond the line endpoints. Experiment 4 showed that leftward scanning resulted in leftward error and rightward scanning resulted in rightward error. Smooth pursuit scanning was more potent than saccadic scanning. Overt scanning was more potent than covert scanning and overall the strongest effects were found in leftward overt smooth pursuit scanning. Results from the cueing experiments suggest that the mechanisms subserving exogenous attentional capture in line bisection are fast, predominantly parvocellular-mediated and exert their effects at least partially in an object-referenced coordinate system. Experiment 4 suggests attentional magnification of the left line halve where visuospatial attention is deployed asymmetrically ahead of a scanned target.
The Benefits of Metaphoric Thinking: Using Individual Differences in Metaphor Usage to Understand the Utility of Conceptual Metaphors
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Fetterman, Adam K.
Metaphor representation theory posits that people often think, rather than merely speak, metaphorically. Particularly, concrete domains (e.g., tactile experiences) are recruited to represent abstract concepts (e.g., love). Based upon this theory, three assumptions can be derived. The first assumption is that metaphors should be common in speech and are not relegated to the realm of poetics. Second, the manipulation of metaphoric mappings should activate associated domains. The final assumption is that the use of conceptual metaphors facilitates the understanding of concepts with no physical referents (e.g., emotion). Research has supported the first two assumptions. The current studies were the first empirical test of the third assumption. A metaphor usage measure was developed and validated in the first study. Two additional studies directly tested the third assumption. Study 2 demonstrated that the metaphor usage measure predicted emotional understanding. Study 3 demonstrated that low metaphor usage predicted dysfunctional responses to negative daily events to a greater extent than high metaphor usage. Those scoring higher in metaphor usage also showed the established sweetness-pro-sociality metaphor effect to a greater extent than those low in metaphor usage. These findings empirically support the idea that metaphor use is associated with an increased understanding of concepts lacking physical referents, an important theoretical question in the metaphor literature. A foundation for future research is provided.
Social Norms' Influence on Gendered Behaviors
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Ewing Lee, Elizabeth
Individual variability in engagement in gendered behavior is primarily assumed to be the result of variability in gender roles (i.e., femininity, masculinity; Bem, 1981). However, contextual factors have also been shown to influence behaving in gendered ways (Leszczynski & Strough, 2008; Pickard & Strough, 2003). The current studies sought to explore engagement in gendered behaviors by examining the influence of social norms on gendered behaviors, as well as how those perceptions interact with gender self-concepts (i.e., gendered contingencies of selfworth, self-efficacy for behaving in gendered ways, similarity to others of one's sex) to influence engagement in gendered behaviors. Two studies were conducted in which participant behavior was measured by having them complete tasks with ambiguous gender stereotypes associated with them: pain threshold and endurance. The norms were presented through direct feedback in Study 1 and through behavioral modeling from confederates in Study 2. Each study also examined the moderating effect of gender self-concepts: gendered contingencies of selfworth, self-efficacy for behaving in gendered ways, and similarity to others of one's sex. In study 1, sex differences were found such that men who were told that their sex was superior evidenced elevated pain threshold when compared to men who were not given any gender specific information. Furthermore, similarity to others of one's sex moderated the association. In study 2, direct tests of the effect of presented norms on groups were not found to be significant. However, when controlling for each of the gender self-concepts, individuals who had same-sex superiority demonstrated had significantly higher pain threshold than those who had observed same-sex confederates demonstrating inferior pain threshold and endurance. Additionally, individuals with higher levels of gender self-efficacy were more likely to have the gendered information impact their behavior than individuals with low levels of gender self-efficacy. Overall, social norms were found to have an impact on individuals' engagement in gendered behaviors, although individual personality factors moderated those relationships. The current work shines a light on how gender norms can both heighten or diminish engagement in gendered behaviors, and underscores the need to examine individual differences when exploring the impact of contextual norms.
Context Processing and Aging Older Adults' Ability to Learn and Utilize Visual Contexts
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Gayzur, Nora Denise
The purpose of the present study was to examine how older adults utilize contextual information to guide attention in visual scenes. Studies that have examined context and attentional deployment have used the contextual cueing task. Contextual cueing reflects faster responses to repeated spatial configurations (consistent context-target covaration) than random spatial configurations (inconsistent covariation). Research has shown mixed results in older adults' ability to utilize context with this task. Young (18-23 years) and older (60-85 years) adults were tested in two contextual cuing experiments to assess age differences in how individuals utilize context in novel and real-world visual scenes. Experiment 1 investigated the development of contextual cueing effects using low-meaning visual contexts (letter arrays). In low-meaning arrays, young and older adults were able to use context effeciently with no age differences in the development of contextual cueing effects. Experiment 2 examined older adults' ability to utilize context when context was meaningful (real-world images). Younger and older adults saw real-world images in an upright (meaningful) or inverted (less meaningful) orientation. Older adults were able to use context similarly to younger adults, with no age differences in the development of contextual cueing. Contrary to predictions, context utilization was not impacted by the meaningfulness of the image. Contextual cueing effects occurred at the same time for upright and inverted images for young and older adults. Together, these studies demonstrated that older adults were able to utilize context. Meaningfulness did not provide an additional benefit for older adults, but this was true of young adults.
Finding Meaning in Misery: Can Stressful Situations Provide Meaning in Life?
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Juhl, Jacob
Theory and research investigating the relationship between affective experiences and meaning in life have focused on how positive affect contributes to perceptions of meaning in life. No work has considered how people can attain meaning in life while experiencing negative affect. The present work tested whether affectively negative circumstances can provide meaning in life. Specifically, two studies, using distinct methodologies, tested whether people can attain meaning in life while experiencing the stress associated with goal-pursuit. In Study 1, the salience of stressful college-related goal-pursuit was experimentally heightened and then perceptions of goal-engagement, meaning in life, and positive and negative affect were measured. In Study 2, trait levels of meaning in life and positive and negative affect were assessed. Later in the semester, stress associated with college-related goal-pursuit, perceptions of goal-engagement, meaning in life, and positive and negative affect were measured. In Study 1, the salience of stressful goal-pursuit did not affect these outcomes. In Study 2, when controlling for trait levels of meaning in life and positive and negative affect, regression and mediation analyses showed that college stress predicted increased negative affect; and that college stress predicted increased perceptions of goal engagement, which in turn predicted increased meaning in life and subsequently positive affect.
Popular in the Digital Age: Self-Monitoring, Aggression, and Prosocial Behaviors in Digital Contexts and their Associations with Popularity
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Ranney, John D.
Information and communication technologies (ICT) play an important role in the social lives of adolescents, as many of the social interactions that once occurred in face-to-face contexts are now occurring through digital technologies. Although many of these interactions are prosocial in nature, adolescents may also engage in high levels of aggression in ICT-mediated contexts (Bauman, 2013; Bauman & Newman, 2013). Furthermore, they often engage in self-monitoring when communicating with peers through ICTs in order to maintain a positive public image (Subrahmanyam, Garcia, Harsono, Li, & Lipana, 2009). These digital behaviors may have implications for how individuals establish and maintain their place within social hierarchies in natural peer contexts (e.g., schools). Drawing on both The Hyperpersonal Theory of Computer-Mediated Communication and Resource Control Theory, the current study examined concurrent associations between digital self-monitoring, cyberaggression, cyber-prosocial behaviors, and popularity. A sample of 273 (112 boys; 161 girls) adolescents attending high schools in the Upper-Midwest of the United States provided data for this study during the fall of the 2014 – 2015 school year. Students completed a series of questionnaires consisting of peer-reports and self-reports of aggressive and prosocial behaviors in face-to-face and digital contexts, peer-reports of popularity, and self-reports of self-monitoring in digital and face-to-face environments. Small positive correlations were found when examining associations between peer- and self-rated cyberaggression and peer- and self-rated cyber-prosocial behavior (rs between .11 and .22). Controlling for face-to-face overt and relational aggression, cyberaggression was negatively related to adolescents’ popularity, particularly for individuals who engaged in low to moderate levels of digital self-monitoring. Cyber-prosocial behavior was positively associated with popularity generally, and specifically for adolescents low in face-to-face prosocial behaviors. Cyberaggression, cyber-prosocial behaviors, and sex also interacted to predict popularity. Analyses revealed that for boys high in cyber-prosocial behaviors, cyberaggression was positively associated with popularity, while the relation between cyberaggression and popularity was not significant for girls or for boys low in cyber-prosocial behavior. Results are discussed within the context of Resource Control Theory and how they may be applied to researchers’ understanding of peer relationships in digital and face-to-face social contexts.
Dual Effects of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity: Social Support as a Comfort and an Encouragement
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Teoh, Ai Ni
The stress-buffering hypothesis (Cohen & McKay, 1984) proposes that social support attenuates cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) in times of stress. Past research which tested this hypothesis has obtained inconsistent findings. A dual effect model of social support and stress (Teoh & Hilmert, 2015) suggests that these inconsistent findings could be due to different effects of social support on CVR that depend on how engaged participants are during a stressful task. Specifically, this model proposes that when people are not engaged, social support encourages, increasing CVR relative to no support; and when people are engaged, social support comforts, attenuating CVR relative to no support. This study examined the dual effect model by empirically manipulating social support and task engagement while monitoring participants’ cardiovascular readings. We randomly assigned the participants (N = 121, all women) to give a speech on either a more engaging or a less engaging topic while receiving social support or no support from two evaluative female audience members. Before and after the speech, the participants completed several questionnaires that included measures of perceived stress and task engagement. Our results showed that, consistent with our prediction, socially supported participants responded to the task with greater CVR than nonsupported participants in the less engaging condition, indicating a social encouragement effect of social support. However, when the speech topic was more engaging, there was no significant effect of social support on CVR. Our findings show that task engagement moderates the effects of social support on CVR. The health implication of a CVR-elevating effect of social support is relatively unexplored and suggests that increased CVR to stress may be associated with positive health in certain situations.
Does Social Support Influence Bulimic Behaviors through its Impact on Cognitive Appraisal
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Kwan, Mun Yee
Social support is one of many interpersonal functions that is impaired among individuals with bulimia nervosa. The buffering hypothesis of social support posits that social support shields the deleterious impact of stress on bulimic behaviors. However, the specific mechanism by which social support protects against the negative impact of stress on bulimic symptoms remains to be clarified. To investigate this mechanism, two studies examined the potential role of cognitive appraisal as a mediator in the relationship between social support and bulimic behaviors among undergraduate students. Study 1 was a longitudinal, naturalistic study in which participants completed online surveys at two assessment points that were four weeks apart. Bootstrap analyses revealed that cognitive appraisal did not mediate the relationship between perceived social support and bulimic behaviors. Exploratory analyses demonstrated that perceived stress, a construct parallel to cognitive appraisal with the emotional experiences taken into consideration, acted as a mediator in this relationship. Perceived social support appeared to be associated with decrease future bulimic behaviors through lowered stress perception. Study 2 was an experimental study that examined the role of cognitive appraisal in the relationship between social support and food consumption, which was used as a laboratory analogue of binge eating. Female participants were randomly assigned into one of two groups: with or without social support available. Stress was induced with a speech task, followed by a bogus taste task. Results demonstrated that perceived stress, instead of cognitive appraisal mediated the relationship between subjective ratings of the experimenter’s supportiveness and calories consumed. Unexpectedly, perceived supportiveness was associated with more caloric consumption through lower stress perception among individuals with high restraint. These studies extended the existing literature by examining perceived social support, perceived stress, and bulimic behaviors in a mediation model. Findings have theoretical and clinical implications for the role of social support in bulimic behaviors and the stress-disordered eating relationship. For example, stress does not always predict binge eating. Moreover, findings suggest the importance of social support in stress management and eating disorder treatments as well as the potential for emotional interventions for eating disorders.
Understanding and Improving Depth Perception from Motion Parallax in Older Adults
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Holmin, Jessica
Successful navigation in the world requires effective visuospatial processing. Unfortunately, older adults have many visuospatial deficits, which can have severe real-world consequences. It is therefore crucial to understand and try to alleviate these deficits whenever possible. One visuospatial process, depth from motion parallax, has been largely unexplored in older adults. Depth from motion parallax requires retinal image motion processing and pursuit eye movements, both of which are affected by age. Given these deficits, it follows logically that sensitivity to motion parallax may be affected in older adults, but no one has yet investigated this possibility. The goals of the current study were to characterize depth from motion parallax in older adults, to explore the mechanisms by which age might affect depth from motion parallax, and to develop training programs that might alleviate the effects of age on motion parallax. In Experiment One, older and younger adults’ motion parallax depth thresholds were characterized. Motion thresholds and pursuit accuracies were also measured. The results of Experiment One revealed that older adults had higher MP depth thresholds than younger adults, and that these age changes were primarily driven by age changes in pursuit eye movements. In Experiment Two, older adults were provided with motion and pursuit training programs to use at home, following the logic that training in motion and pursuit would improve older adults’ depth thresholds. Improvements of performance at these training tasks were assessed. Depth thresholds, motion thresholds, and pursuit accuracy pre- and post-training were evaluated as well, using the same methods as in Experiment One. The results of Experiment Two revealed that motion and pursuit training did not affect observers’ performance throughout the course of training, and there were no effects of training on depth or motion thresholds or pursuit eye movements. The current study is the first to examine age changes in motion parallax depth thresholds, and to investigate the mechanisms of age changes in the perception of depth from motion parallax. Though the training programs in Experiment Two did not produce improvements of perceptual performance, this study was successful in implementing an easy-to-use, at-home training technique.
Awakening the Social Self: Nostalgia Regulates Loneliness by Energizing Approach-Related Social Motivation
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Abeyta, Andrew Allen
Chronic loneliness is predictive of poor health. Therefore, it is vital to identify psychological resources that combat loneliness and encourage social connection. However, loneliness is difficult to overcome, in part because it is associated with a maladaptive high avoidance and low approach motivation orientation that limits a person’s ability to connect with others. I hypothesized that nostalgia, a positive emotional experience that involves reflecting on cherished memories that are typically social in nature, is a psychological resource that regulates the tendency for lonely people to be less oriented toward social approach goals and motivation. I tested this hypothesis across 3 studies. Studies 1 and 2 examined whether nostalgia mitigates the inverse relation between loneliness and approach-related social goals, intentions, and behaviors. Studies 2 and 3, explored whether nostalgia mitigates the inverse relation between nostalgia and general approach/avoidance motivation. The results provided mixed support for the hypothesis. Nonetheless, there was preliminary evidence that feelings of nostalgia may weaken the relationship between loneliness and deficits in approach-related goals and intentions.
Playing the Objectification Game: How Women's Self-Esteem Impacts the Existential Consequences of Objectification
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Roylance, Christina
Living in a culture of objectification harms women’s well-being in a number of ways. Despite this well-studied phenomenon, no research has yet investigated whether objectification impacts women’s existential well-being, or meaning in life, which is a critical component of psychological and physical health. Using a terror management theoretical perspective, I propose that objectification is a worldview women are encouraged to participate in in order to achieve meaning. More specifically, I propose that objectification’s effect on meaning will be dependent on women’s perceived success at living up to the standards of objectification (i.e. her self-esteem about her appearance), or how much she values the objectification worldview (i.e. how much important she places on her appearance). Results support that body esteem and appearance contingency of self-worth both play a role in moderating various outcomes after women have contemplated an experience of being objectified. Additional results support that an unrelated contingency of self-worth related to religion and spirituality may also moderate the impact of objectification. The importance of these results in the landscape of objectification intervention research is discussed.
The Relationship Between Appearance Comparisons and Disordered Eating Behaviors: A Proposed Model and a Test of an Intervention
(North Dakota State University, 2017) Minnich, Allison
One sociocultural factor that has been implicated as a risk factor in the development of eating disorders is a tendency to compare one’s appearance to others’ (appearance-related comparisons). The aims of the current study were to propose a detailed model of the relationship between appearance comparisons and disordered eating behaviors based on a review of previous literature and to experimentally test an intervention generated from this model. Previous research reports inconsistent findings regarding the potential differential impact of comparisons to universalistic (i.e., distant sources of influences) and particularistic (i.e., close sources of influence) targets. The intervention aimed to alter appearance comparisons to either media targets or peer targets to determine if there is a differential impact of a peer-target intervention and a media-targeted intervention on body dissatisfaction, frequency of comparisons, and the relevance of the comparison target. The intervention was designed to help participants view themselves as dissimilar to their comparison targets, lowering their likelihood of making appearance comparisons and increasing appearance esteem and body image. Participants, undergraduate females, were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: peer-targeted intervention, media-targeted intervention, or a control group. Results revealed that both the media-targeted and peer-targeted interventions reduced the relevance of the comparison target, increased appearance esteem, and increased state body image. However, neither of the interventions reduced the frequency of appearance comparisons to peer or media targets in the week following the intervention. Theoretically, the current paper extends the literature by providing a comprehensive model of factors that link appearance comparisons to disordered eating behaviors. Clinically, the study provides a promising intervention for reducing the negative impact of appearance comparisons on body image, and potentially, eating behaviors.
Facilitating Attentional Guidance in Driving Scenes: Adult Age Differences in the Effectiveness of Directional Cues
(North Dakota State University, 2018) Elliott, Dustin Michael
Aging negatively impacts multiple processes of visual attention that can influence driving performance and safety. However, spatial orienting in response to visual cues remains relatively intact into late adulthood. The two experiments in the present study were aimed to determine the extent to which two types of directional visual cues effectively guide spatial orienting of older (60-80 years) and younger (18-35 years) adults in driving scenes. In Experiment 1, I utilized a Posner cuing task to investigate reflexive orienting to a target (a car at an intersection) in response to peripheral onset and central arrow cues. Both younger and older adults showed orienting benefits to valid directional cues and costs to invalid directional cues, and older adults showed greater attentional costs and benefits than younger adults. Furthermore, only younger adults showed general alerting effects following non-directional cues. In Experiment 2, I tested whether peripheral onset cues could effectively orient younger and older adults’ attention to a car’s location in video clips of simulated driving. Both age groups showed attentional benefits and costs from directional cues as well as alerting effects from neutral cues. Older adults showed larger overall cuing effects, which were driven primarily by costs from invalid cues. The age differences in the magnitude of cuing effects persisted, for the most part, after reducing the influence of general slowing. The two experiments of the present study demonstrated the effectiveness of visual cues in guiding attention in driving scenes. The findings suggest that the visual attention of both younger and older adults can be facilitated by visual cues in a driving environment, and the findings serve as a stepping-stone to the applied integration of cues into automobiles.
The Effects of Reattribution Training and Behavioral Activation on Cognitive Vulnerabilities to Depression Among College Students
(North Dakota State University, 2018) Myhre, Samantha Kathleen
Depression among adolescents and college students comes with significant negative impacts on multiple areas of functioning as well as burdens on society. It is important to understand what makes young people vulnerable to experiencing depression as well as how to prevent it. This study intended to compare cognitive and behavioral skills training to determine their effect on cognitive vulnerabilities to depression. Participants who have never been depressed were recruited based on high levels of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression. They were randomized to a cognitive condition, a behavioral condition, or a waitlist condition. Pre-, post-, and follow-up measures were collected including cognitive vulnerabilities, symptoms of depression and anxiety, areas of general functioning, and the credibility of the workshops. Overall, participants in all conditions demonstrated decreases in dysfunctional attitudes and state anxiety overtime as well as increases in sleep quality, satisfaction with life, perceived social support, and academic self-concept. Individuals in the both the cognitive and behavioral conditions demonstrated decreases in level of rumination from pre-workshop to the time of follow-up. Decreases in dysfunctional attributional styles were found for those in the cognitive condition. Lastly, individuals in both workshop conditions demonstrated significant increases in behavioral activation whereas those in the waitlist condition demonstrated a significant decrease. This study provides us with inconclusive evidence regarding whether brief skills training workshops may be of use when attempting to reduce cognitive vulnerability to depression.
On Distance Perception
(North Dakota State University, 2018) Lauer, Shanda Deleen
A crucial, but little studied, visual function involves estimating distance from the self to an object in the environment (absolute distance perception). This is a fundamental component in the creation of our perception of the 3D world and is likely to be affected by alcohol, and be a factor in drunk driving accidents. To better understand which visual cues observers use to determine distance, participants completed a series of psychophysical judgments under different viewing conditions. By controlling and isolating specific distance cues through a novel viewing apparatus, we were able to investigate which cues are used to accurately judge distance. Alcohol intoxication allows us to selectively investigate the specific visual systems that are and are not involved in contributing to the accuracy of this type of task. Finally, an investigation of the effects of training and feedback on distance estimation tasks in a real 3D environment was also conducted. In summary, this research attempted to uncover not only how the visual system processes spatial information, but also how visual processing changes with alcohol intoxication with implications for understanding alcohol-related visual-spatial dysfunction that may arise in drunk driving. These findings will then be applied to a real world, 3D outdoor environment while investigating the impact of training and feedback on a distance estimation task.

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