Plant Sciences

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Research from the Department of Plant Sciences. The department website may be found athttps://www.ag.ndsu.edu/plantsciences

Blizzard Watch is the newsletter for the Department of Plant Sciences and can be found at https://hdl.handle.net/10365/28265

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Characterizing Chromosomes for Fusarium Head Blight Resistance in a Spring Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Cultivar, 'Frontana'
(North Dakota State University, 2009) Yabwalo, Dalitso Noble
Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by the fungus Fusarium graminearum, is a major fungal disease of wheat and other cereal crops that causes both yield and quality losses due to shriveled kernels and accumulation of mycotoxins in the seed. 'Frontana', a Brazilian spring wheat cultivar, is a source ofresistance genes to FHB, and it is believed to express resistance to both the establishment and spread of FHB (type I and type II resistance, respectively). Reciprocal backcross monosomic (RBCM) lines developed using Frontana and 'Chris', a susceptible spring wheat cultivar, and involving critical chromosomes 3A, 6A, and 4D from these parents were compared to characterize the type of resistance expressed by Frontana and confirm the chromosomes carrying genes for resistance. In four separate greenhouse tests, spray and single floret inoculation techniques were used to assess both types of resistance. Plants were inoculated when half of the plants in a pot were at anthesis (Feekes Growth Stage 10.5). Genotypes were evaluated for disease incidence, spread, deoxynivalinol (DON) content, Fusarium damaged kernels (FDK) and severity at 21 d after inoculation. Generally, RBCM lines with the critical Frontana chromosomes had low FHB incidence, spread, and severity. The RBCM line with chromosome 3A from Frontana exhibited the lowest FHB severity after spray inoculation, and the least spread after point inoculation. Frontana 3A lines had the lowest FHB incidence levels after spray inoculation amongst the RBCM lines that were tested. This implies the presence of major resistance genes on chromosome 3A which are likely involved in both resistance to disease establishment and spread. However, resistance genes on 3A likely also interact with genes on other chromosomes to confer resistance to FHB because Frontana typically expressed a higher level of resistance to disease establishment and spread. Chromosome 4D also seems to play a significant role in Type I resistance while 6A contributes to Type II resistance.
Pyroxasulfone Tolerance of Navy and Pinto Beans (Phaseolis vulgaris L.), Dry Pea (Pisum sativum L.), and Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik)
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Hunt, Ryan Leigh
Field experiments were conducted to determine the tolerance of navy and pinto bean, dry pea, and lentil to pyroxasulfone. Additional field studies were conducted to evaluate the weed control efficacy of pyroxasulfone in preemergence and early-preplant applications. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine plant uptake of pyroxasulfone and the influence of activation timing on navy bean injury. Navy bean tolerance to pyroxasulfone varied by rate and experiment location. Navy bean injury occurred at 166 g ai ha-1 in 2008 and at 332 g ai ha·1 in 2009. A pyroxasulfone rate of 166 g ai ha·1 and greater resulted in decreased yield of navy bean. Pinto bean injury from pyroxasulfone varied by location. As pyroxasulfone rate increased, visual injury to pinto bean increased at Prosper in 2008; however, no pinto bean injury was observed at Prosper in 2009. Pinto bean injury was observed in all other environments at 332 g ai ha· 1 • Pinto bean yield was not reduced. Dry pea tolerance was excellent in all environments tested; however, the lack of weed control in all environments was evidence that pyroxasulfone was not activated by precipitation received. Lentil tolerance was excellent in all environments tested, except for Minot 2009. Visual injury at Minot 2009 increased from 14 to 28 d after emergence, and then decreased to insignificant levels 56 d after emergence. Lentil yield was not affected at any environment; however, a lack of weed control in all environments, except for Minot 2009, was caused by inadequate precipitation to activate the herbicide. These studies suggest that navy bean may not have sufficient tolerance to pyroxasulfone for field use. More research should be performed on dry pea and lentil tolerance to determine the extent of tolerance in various environments. Weed control experiments showed both the potential and inconsistency of pyroxasulfone. High weed control ratings in the 2008 EPP (early preplant) study, from 14 to 35 d after application, demonstrated the ability of pyroxasulfone to control weeds growing prior to herbicide activation. Yellow foxtail (Setaria glauca (L.)) and hairy nightshade (Solanum sarrachoides Sendt.) were controlled at 166 g ai ha· 1 • Wild mustard (Brassica Kaber (DC.)), hairy nightshade, and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus) were controlled 70 dafter application at 166 g ai ha·1 • Redroot pigweed control at 125 g ai ha·1 was equivalent to acetochlor in the PRE (preemergence) 2008 study. Yellow foxtail control at an increased rate of 209 g ai ha·1 pyroxasulfone was equivalent to the yellow foxtail control of acetochlor in the PRE 2008 study. Pyroxasulfone consistently controlled all weeds better than S-metolachlor, except for yellow foxtail at a reduced rate. Pyroxasulfone at the suggested use rate of 166 g ai ha·1 controlled all weeds tested, except for marshelder, at the same level as acetochlor in the PRE studies. Rates of pyroxasulfone higher than 166 g ai ha·1 were needed to control weeds at the same level as acetochlor, as the growing season progressed. Visual injury to navy bean with pyroxasulfone was found to be severe when moisture activated the herbicide at the ground-crack stage in greenhouse experiments. No injury occurred from herbicide activation at other timings. Soil with decreased organic matter showed less injury. The soil placement study confirmed that pyroxasulfone can be taken into a plant through both the roots and shoots; however, pyroxasulfone activity is greatest through root uptake.
Yield Comparison of Transplanted Tomato and Pepper Plants Grown in Different Sized Cell Packs
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Weinmann, Todd Joseph
Field experiments were conducted at Fargo, North Dakota, in 2006 and repeated at Fargo, Oakes, North Dakota, and Absaraka, North Dakota, in 2007 to compare time to harvest and yields from tomatoes (Lycopersicon escu/entum var. esculentum) and peppers (Capsicum annuum) that had been initially grown in different sized cell packs. A second objective was to determine if root manipulations to tomatoes at the time of transplanting could overcome root-bound effects of delayed establishment and reduced yields. Three tomato cultivars with differing growth or fruiting characteristics were used: 'Big Beef' an indeterminant cultivar, 'Sungem', a determinant cultivar, and 'Roma', a determinant paste cultivar, and two pepper cultivars with differing fruiting characteristics: 'Big Bertha' a green bell pepper cultivar and 'Cherry Bomb', a hot pepper cultivar were used. Two weeks after seeding, pepper and tomato seedlings were transplanted into one of three cell packs with cell volumes of 84, 137, and 287 cm3 . Seedlings were grown in cell packs in the green house before acclimating for 7 days and transplanting into a black or white plastic covered row system in the field. The second study evaluated three root manipulation treatments: dipped in auxin after one-fourth of the bottom part of the roots were removed, dipped in auxin without one-fourth of the bottom part of the roots removed, four vertical cuts to the root ball for root-bound seedlings, and untreated roots grown in 84 cm3 cells and immediately planted. Tomato seedlings grown in the 287 cm3 cell packs were visually larger than seedlings in 84 or 137 cm3 cell packs when transplanted to the field. However, all plants flowered at similar times and fruit growth did not differ. Results suggest that the three cell volumes did not influence the period between field transplanting and the first harvest or the total yield. Pepper seedlings grown in the 287 cm3 cell packs were visually larger than seedlings in 84 or 137 cm3 cell packs when transplanted to the field. With the peppers (bell and hot) the three cell volumes did not influence the period between field transplanting and the first harvest, but an increase in yield was seen with the 287 cm3 cell packs followed by the 137 and 84 cm3 cell packs respectively. None of the root manipulations altered the time from field transplant to first harvest or the total yields compared to the untreated roots. Results suggest that root manipulation to root-bound tomato seedlings when transplanting in the field will not hasten field establishment or shorten the period between transplanting and the first harvest, and will not increase yield .
Soil Chemical Properties of Sand-based C,olf Putting Green at Different Depths
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Wang, Yichun
USGA-specified golf putting green rootzone is a highly managed. sand dominated turf system. As putting greens age. organic matter accumulation in the form or thatch and mat in the upper rootzone profile causes temporal and spatial changes in soil chemical properties. The objective of the first study was to characterize soil chemical properties in aging putting green rootzones. Four USGA-specified putting greens treated with l\VO rootzone mixtures (sand/peat at 80:20: sand/peat/soil at 80: 15:5) and two establishment fertilization regimes (controlled and accelerated) were constructed in sequential years. Samples were collected to a depth of 7.62 cm when the four putting greens were 6. 7. 8. and 9 years old. and were subdivided into 12 layers. The effects or root zone mixture. establishment fertilization regime. putting green age. and soil depth on total organic C. total N. potentially mineralizable N (PMN). cation exchange capacity (CFC). Electrical conductivity (EC). and pH were evaluated. The rootzone mixtures and establishment fcrtili1.ation regimes had no effect on soil chemical properties investigated saving EC. which was higher in sand/peat/soil rootzones. Total organic C. total N. PMN CEC. and EC decreased with soil depth whereas soil PH increased with soil depth. The interaction between putting green age and soil depth was significant for t'1tal N. CFC. and EC. The initial differences or soil chemical properties disappeared due to topdressing practice over a period 0!'<1 yc,1rs at the top or the rootzones especially in the Oto 2 cm layer. The chemical properties of the original rootzone layers are affected by both the age of the putting greens and cultural practices. Diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared (DRIFT) spectroscopy in the near infrared (NIR) (4000-10000 cm- 1) and mid -infrared (MIR) (600-4000 cm- 1) region in conjunction with partial least square regression (PLSR) is able to rapidly predict multiple soil properties from a single spectral scanning and is deemed as a promising surrogate for conventional analytical methods. In the second study. by using samples collected in the first study. calibration models were developed for total organic C. total N. CEC. EC. And pl I by regressing spectral results of DRIFT-NIR and -MIR with values determined by conventional methods. Results fix total organic C, total N, CFC and EC achieved R2 > 0.80. Mid infrared and NIR spectroscopy gave similar calibration accuracy for soil properties investigated. Based on rootzone mixture (sand/peat vs sand/peat/soil). Putting green age (6-yr-old vs 9-yr-old). and sampling depth (0-3.81 cm vs 3.81-7.62 cm). the whole sample set was further grouped into subsets. Satisfactory accuracy of MIR calibrations and mutual predictions was achieved with subsets of different rootzone mixtures and putting green ages. However. subsets separated by soil depth failed to be predicted with sufficient accuracy within the group. Results of the study verified the potential of using DRIFT-NIR and -MIR to predict soil chemical properties of sand-based turf soil through PLSR modeling: however. model robustness might be affected by sampling depth.
Factors Affecting Grapevine Establishment in Northern Production Regions
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Stenger, John Edward
Two experiments were conducted to detect differences in growth and cold hardiness during establishment of northern grown wine grapevines. One experiment tested the use of four grow tube treatments and two pruning levels on vine establishment in the upper Midwest. The variables included leaf area, stem height, root growth, phenology, and hardiness. Overall, few significant differences occurred among treatments where grow tubes were utilized. In the second season, vines without grow tubes had superior measurements in nearly all leaf area categories. For this reason, it is recommended that growers refrain from grow tube use during establishment in northern growing regions. Vines pruned to three buds after transplanting varied little from those without pruning. For this reason, it is recommended that growers utilize the most efficient early pruning strategy for their particular situation. Another experiment was conducted to determine the effectiveness of different weed control measures. This experiment compared three kinds of mulches and an herbicide treatment on the growth and establishment of four wine grape varieties. Annual weed control, plant growth, phenology, soil water content and temperature, and vine hardiness were measured. Overall, vines receiving mulch had more consistent annual weed control and reduced early season growth when compared to chemically treated vines. For this reason, mulch is recommended in the vineyard for annual weed control during establishment in situations where vigor is not unacceptably low.
Wheat Traits Variations, Associations, and Potential Improvement from Crosses of Elite X Non-Adapted Germplasm
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Mantovani, Eder Eduardo
Wheat improvement most often has been accompanied by a narrowing germplasm base, as newer cultivars have been derived from intercrosses between elite germplasm. However, there is a concern that narrow germplasm may restrict breeding improvement for important traits such as resistances to new biotic and abiotic stresses. In addition to germplasm base, the wheat kernel is a major component of wheat grain yield and an important factor for milling characteristics. Focusing on wheat kernel characteristics might be a key element to improve wheat genotypes for agronomic and quality traits. With the intention to broaden the wheat germplasm, and to explore the associations between kernel traits and agronomic as well as quality traits, a two-year study was initiated in 2009 to examine the influence of the kernel traits on the agronomic and quality attributes of a 160 Recombinant Inbred Lines (RIL) population developed from an adapted (ND 705) and a non-adapted genotype (PI 414566). The experiment was conducted at Prosper and Carrington, North Dakota, during 2009 and 2010. The RIL population had a better performance at Carrington than Prosper due to favorable climatic conditions at this location, in 2009 and 2010. The results in this study showed that kernel traits had a high correlation among them and they exhibited continuous variations suggesting a polygenic inheritance. Grain yield, kernel volume weight (KVW), and flour extraction were highly correlated with kernel width, length/width ratio, weight, and area. Eight RIL yielded better than the adapted parent ND 705 and two of the RIL along with three checks were significantly superior for gram yield compared with the other genotypes across all environments. Although the non-adapted parent has a facultative grown habit, several RIL required fewer days to flower compared to the adapted parent. Two RIL had better flour extraction compared to the other genotypes included in this study. These results indicated that kernel traits can play a significant role in improving agronomic and quality traits. Higher values for grain yield, KVW, and flour extraction were significantly associated with spheroid or round shape (short and plump), large, and heavy kernels. The high agronomic and quality attributes showed by some RIL demonstrated that the use of a non-adapted parent can broaden the genetic variability while increasing the genetic gain for certain traits. Also, breeders should pay attention to kernel size and shape during the parental selection for the development of populations with improved agronomic and quality traits.
Gene Expression Associated with Wound and Native Periderm Maturation in Potato Tubers
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Neubauer, Jonathan David
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the world's fourth largest food crop and large financial losses are incurred each year from wound and bruise related injuries. However, little is known about the coordinate induction of genes that may be associated with, or mark major wound-healing and periderm maturation events. Also, one of the key defense mechanisms for potato tubers is the robust barrier provided by the phellem (skin) of the native periderm. Many biological processes are involved in the formation of this stout tissue. However, little is known about induction of genes that may be associated with this process. The objectives of this research were to molecularly assess the processes of wound periderm development and maturation, and native periderm maturation in potato tubers. In this study, these processes were determined in coordination with expression profiles of selected genes. The cell cycle, cell wall protein, and pectin methyl esterase genes were determined from two diverse potato genotypes and two harvests NDTX4271-5R (ND) and Russet Burbank (RB) tubers; 2008 and 2009 harvests. Cell cycle genes encoding epidermal growth factor binding protein (StEBP), cyclin-dependent kinase B (StCDKB), and cyclin-dependent kinase regulatory subunit (StCKS1At) expression profiles were coordinated with related phellogen formation and the induction and cessation of phellem cell formation. Genes encoding the structural cell wall proteins extensin (StExt1) and extensin-like (StExtlk) expression profiles suggested involvement with closing layer formation and subsequent phellem cell layer formations. The coordinate induction and expression profile of StTLRP, a gene encoding a cell wall strengthening "tyrosine- and lysine-rich protein," suggested a role in the formation of the closing layer followed by phellem cell generation and lastly cell wall thickening in nonmeristematic phellogen cells. StPME and StPrePME expression increased during periderm development, implicating involvement in modifications for closing layer and phellem cell formation. Collectively, these results indicate that the genes monitored were involved in and their expression profiles markedly coordinated with periderm formation and the on-set of periderm maturation; results were more influenced by harvest than genotype. Importantly, StTLRP was the only gene examined that may be involved in phellogen cell wall strengthening or thickening after cessation of cell division.
Turfgrass Responses and Rootzone Media Characteristics as Affected by Salinity
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Wang, Sheng
Utilization of salt-tolerant species or cultivars is one the most effective methods to address salinity problems in turfgrass management. The relative salt tolerance in 26 commercial creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera) cultivars during germination was studied. Final germination rate (FGR) and daily germination rate (DGR) decreased as salinity levels increased; however, DGR was more sensitive to salinity stress. Substantial differences in salt tolerance were observed in bentgrass cultivars, with 'Declaration', 'Seaside II', 'T-1 ', and 'Bengal' being the most salt-tolerant (averaged predicted salinity level causing 50% reduction of DGR [PSLD] = 8.2 g L -1 NaCl) and 'Tyee', 'Kingpin'. and 'SRI 150' being the most salt-sensitive (averaged PLSD = 6.5 g L -1 NaCl). Relative salinity tolerance in four populations of prairie junegrass (Koeleriu macrantha) collected from Colorado, Minnesota, Nebraska, and North Dakota and two improved turf-type cultivars from Europe ('Barleria' and 'Barkoel') was determined and compared to Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), sheep fescue (Festuca ovina), hard fescue (F. brevipila), and tall fescue (F. arundinacea). All populations of prairie junegrass showed similar salt tolerance with an average of PSLF and PSLD being 7.1 and 5.3 g L -1 NaCl, respectively, comparable to Kentucky bluegrass and hard and sheep fescue but lower than tall fescue and perennial rye grass. In junegrasses, larger variations were observed in visual quality (VQ) than in electrolyte leakage (EL) and dry weight (OW) at vegetative growth stage. 'Barleria' junegrass showed the highest VQ, following two salt-tolerant grasses, tall fescue and sheep fescue. Junegrass - Nebraska population was the least salt-tolerant within the species, but still exhibited similar or higher tolerance than Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass cv. Arctic Green. Overall, junegrass was more salt sensitive during germination but more tolerant to salinity when mature.
Salinity Tolerance of Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.)
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Gao, Yang
Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) is one of the commonly used cool-season turfgrass species. Despite the many advantages of tall fescue, there are some properties that restrict its use as turf grass. Recent efforts on selection of turf-type tall fescue focus on fine leaf texture, darker green color, seedling turgor, overall density, tolerance to extreme temperatures, and other stresses. The objectives of this research were to develop techniques in screening salinity tolerant tall fescue and to investigate the leaf senescence process, growth and nutrient uptake of tall fescue under salinity stress induced by different types of salt. Two tall fescue cultivars, Tar Heel II (salt tolerant) and Wolfpack (salt sensitive) were grown in silica sand as growth medium and fertilized with Hoagland solution. Salt treatments were added to the medium along with Hoagland solution. At least three indices calculated based on single leaf spectrum showed promise as sensitive means to differentiate salinity stress from untreated plants. Those indices also are strongly correlated to many physiological parameters that have been shown to be reliable measures of salinity tolerance in many plant species including tall fescue. Tall fescue leaf senescence was accelerated by salinity stress which was different from the aging process under shade. Tall fescuc had several adaptation strategies in order to conserve water under salinity stress, while the plants under shade had adaptation mechanisms centered on light harvesting. Tall fescue accelerated old leaf senescence, whereas under shade conditions, tall fescue showed slowing down in the new leaf development as well as mature leaf aging. Tall fescue growth responded to salinity stress differently from shade stress, a fact that has to be taken into consideration when selecting for stress tolerant traits, such as leaf length, root to shoot ratio. Leaf appearance rate may be different with stress tolerance levels and mediate the tiller number and shoot density. By comparing and contrasting the effects on nutrients uptake, it was shown that K, Ca, Mg may be very important in the ion balance and salinity stress tolerance. Tall fescue leaf firing was mainly caused by an alkaline condition with pH higher than 9 as in Na2C03, or moderate pH combined with high salinity (high EC) as in CaC}i. Plant growth was more affected by sodicity which was high in Na2C03 and Na2S04• Osmotic adjustment also played an important role in tall fescue salinity stress in chlorides. Chloride effects were closely related to RWC of the leaves. The combination of different salts along with the variation of their physical and chemical properties, such as EC, pH, and osmotic potential, made the differentiation of their influence on tall fescue stress rather difficult. Multiple properties, such as growth, morphological, and physiological, should be measured to better understand the effects of different salts.
Strategies for Optimizing Nitrogen Use in Corn with and without Subsurface Drainage
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Twedt, Evan Jacob
Excessive soil moisture can impact planting date, plant establishment, and N availability, resulting in reduced yields and N use efficiency. Nitrogen management practices such as use of urease and nitrification inhibitors, and split applications may be used to reduce N lost during the growing season, improving N use efficiency and crop productivity. The objective of this study was to determine whether N management practices could improve corn (Zea mays L.) productivity with or without subsurface drainage on a fine-textured clay soil in eastern North Dakota. Five field trials were conducted in 2009 and 2010 in eastern North Dakota. Treatments consisted of a factorial combination of N management practices [urease inhibitor n-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT), starter fertilizer, nitrification inhibitor 2-Chloro-6-(trichloromethyl) pyridine (nitrapyrin), and split applications], N rates (56, 112, 168, and 224 kg N ha-1), and the presence of subsurface drainage (two environments). In both 2009 and 2010 there was no grain yield differences among drainage treatments. Differences in grain yield were observed with different N rates. Nitrogen management practices also affected grain yield. The interactions between N management practices and drainage were not significant. End of season stalk nitrate content showed differences in N availability with different N rates, but not N management practices. Neither NBPT nor the starter fertilizer significantly increased yield over the untreated check in any environment. Nitrapyrin significantly increased yield over the untreated check at Fargo in 2010. Increased N rates resulted in greater corn grain protein.
Subsurface Drainage in Clay Soils in a Northern Climate and its Effects on Various Soybean Cultivars and Soil Properties.
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Brodshaug, Jack Adam
The Red River Valley of the North in North Dakota and Minnesota is a region with unique clay soils. Since 1993, the region has seen increased annual rainfall that has caused seasonal soil waterlogging, inhibiting crop yield potential. Prolonged waterlogging may cause debilitating physiological and chemical problems in plants. Subsurface (tile) drainage is relatively new to the region and offers an option farmers are exploring to help reduce excess water in the rootzone. The objective of this research was to identify the effect of subsurface drainage on soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.] productivity using various cultivars and to evaluate differences in soil temperature, soil penetration resistance, and water table depth between drainage treatments. Two experiments (2009-2010) were conducted in the Red River Valley. The experimental area is unique as it has eight tiled units which can each regulate drainage using control structures. The experimental design was a randomized complete block (RCB) in a split-plot arrangement with four replicates. The whole plots were drained or undrained (control structures opened and closed, respectively), and the sub-plots were 29 soybean cultivars. Soybean cultivars were selected based on iron chlorosis resistance, phytophthora root rot tolerance, and growing capability in wet soils. Penetrometer readings, water table depth, and soil temperature were measured weekly. Soybean yields between drained and undrained treatments were not significantly different according to the combined analysis. This was due to 2009 being a relatively dry year and 2010 a relatively wet year. However, in 2010, the non-genetically modified (non GMO) soybean cultivars and the cultivars chosen for their resistance to Phytophthora sojae were significantly better on the drained soil. In 2009 and 2010, drained treatments had a significantly higher soil penetration resistance, indicating that the drained soil is capable of a higher carrying capacity compared to the undrained soil. The wheat measurement site had a value of 1,420 kPa in the drained soil, while the undrained soil had a value of 1,267 kPa. The soybean measurement site had a value of 1,137 kPa in the drained soil, while the undrained soil had a value of 1,021 kPa. Finally, the bare ground measurement site had a value of 1,077 kPa in the drained soil, while the undrained soil had a value of 1,001 kPa. The water table was lower on drained soil compared to the undrained soil early and late in the growing season, causing the differences in soil penetration resistance. Temperature was significantly higher only on the drained soil planted to soybean compared to the undrained soil planted to soybean. The temperature difference was most pronounced in the spring. Subsurface drainage is a valuable tool for farmers in the Red River Valley. Despite the clay soils, cold winter, and shorter growing season, subsurface drainage works and helps to improve the efficiency of farming large fields in an area that has consistently battled wet weather for the last ten years. At a time when commodity prices are at a record high, improving efficiency and productivity with subsurface drainage might be an option. Overall, tile drainage has the potential to drastically change how farming is conducted in the clay soils in eastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota.
Efficacy and Soil Residual of Herbicides Developed For Optimum GAT (Glyphosate Acetolactate Synthase Tolerant) Crops
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Carruth, David James
Field experiments were conducted at five Northern Midwest locations to evaluate one and two pass herbicide programs developed for weed control in Optimum GAT (Glyphosate Acetolactate Synthase Tolerant) corn (Zea mays L.). All treatments provided greater than 95% control of grass and broadleafweed species 14 days after application (DAA) and greater than 80% control 28 DAA. There were no statistical differences in weed control 14 and 28 DAA between one and two pass herbicide treatments. Field experiments were conducted at three North Dakota locations to evaluate the growth and yield of hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), field corn, dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), canola (Brassica napus L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) one year after chlorimuron-ethyl was applied to soils with different pH. Chlorimuron treatments at Valley City (soil pH< 6.2) and Reynolds (soil pH > 8.3) caused 18 to 86% canola injury 28 days after emergence (DAE). All treatments at these locations delayed canola flowering 2 to 7 days compared to the control. Pinto bean yield at Reynolds was reduced from the control by 25% at 11.6 g ha- 1 and 34% at 17.5 g ha- 1 • Chlorimuron applied at 11.6 g ha- 1 and 17.5 g ha- 1 at Alice (soil pH 6.2 to 7.8) resulted in 21 to 26% corn injury 28 DAE, but yield was unaffected. Sugar beet yield at Alice and Reynolds was reduced from the control by 43 to 86% at 11.6 and 17.5 g ha- 1. These data confirmed that low rates of chlorimuron can injure canola and sugar beet one year after application. These data also suggest that minor injury may occur to pinto bean, hard red spring wheat, and com when 5.8 g ha- 1 or less of chlorimuron is applied the previous year; however, yield should not be significantly impacted. Field experiments were conducted near Mapleton and Casselton, North Dakota, to evaluate the enhancement of glyphosate plus rimsulfuron, tribenuron methyl, and mesotrione (Trigate™) and glyphosate plus chlorimuron ethyl, tribenuron methyl, and thifensulfuron methyl (Freestyle™) from adjuvants of different classes on flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), tame buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.), and conventional com. Adjuvants containing ammonium sulfate (AMS) or an AMS replacement provided greater enhancement of glyphosate plus Trigate™ and glyphosate plus Freestyle™ on flax and com compared to oil-based adjuvants. The enhancement of these herbicides on quinoa and tame buckwheat appeared to be somewhat similar for oil-based adjuvants compared to AMS-based adjuvants. Cut Rate and ET 4000 adjuvants provided little to no enhancement of these herbicides on flax and quinoa. The addition of Class Act NG to glyphosate plus Trigate™ or glyphosate plus Freestyle™ provided 68 to 94% control on species tested 28 DAA. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of pH on the e ffit eacy o fTn.g ateT M an d FreestyleT M on common lambsquarters (Chenopodr.n m album L.) and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medik. ). Adjusting the pH of the spray solution did not appear to influence the efficacy of Trigate™ and Freestyle™ herbicides on common lambsquarters. Control ofvelvetleaf was greater and dry weights were lower compared to other pH treatments for glyphosate plus Freestyle™ applied when the pH was raised to 9 and lowered to 2; however, this pattern was not observed with glyphosate plus Trigate™ or with Trigate™ and Freestyle™ applied alone.
Subsurface Drainage in Clay Soils in a Northern Climate and its Effects on Various Soybean Cultivars and Soil Properties
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Jack Adam, Brodshaug
The Red River Valley of the North in North Dakota and Minnesota is a region with unique clay soils. Since 1993, the region has seen increased annual rainfall that has caused seasonal soil waterlogging, inhibiting crop yield potential. Prolonged waterlogging may cause debilitating physiological and chemical problems in plants. Subsurface (tile) drainage is relatively new to the region and offers an option farmers are exploring to help reduce excess water in the rootzone. The objective of this research was to identify the effect of subsurface drainage on soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] productivity using various cultivars and to evaluate differences in soil temperature, soil penetration resistance, and water table depth between drainage treatments. Two experiments (2009-2010) were conducted in the Red River Valley. The experimental area is unique as it has eight tiled units which can each regulate drainage using control structures. The experimental design was a randomized complete block (RCB) in a split-plot arrangement with four replicates. The whole plots were drained or undrained ( control structures opened and closed, respectively), and the sub-plots were 29 soybean cultivars. Soybean cultivars were selected based on iron chlorosis resistance, phytophthora root rot tolerance, and growing capability in wet soils. Penetrometer readings, water table depth, and soil temperature were measured weekly. Soybean yields between drained and undrained treatments were not significantly different according to the combined analysis. This was due to 2009 being a relatively dry year and 2010 a relatively wet year. However, in 2010, the non-genetically modified (non-GMO) soybean cultivars and the cultivars chosen for their resistance to Phytophthora sojae were significantly better on the drained soil. In 2009 and 2010, drained treatments had a significantly higher soil penetration resistance, indicating that the drained soil is capable of a higher carrying capacity compared to the undrained soil. The wheat measurement site had a value of 1,420 k:Pa in the drained soil, while the undrained soil had a value of 1,267 k:Pa. The soybean measurement site had a value of 1,137 kPa in the drained soil, while the undrained soil had a value of 1,021 k:Pa. Finally, the bare ground measurement site had a value of 1,077 k:Pa in the drained soil, while the undrained soil had a value of 1,001 k:Pa. The water table was lower on drained soil compared to the undrained soil early and late in the growing season, causing the differences in soil penetration resistance. Temperature was significantly higher only on the drained soil planted to soybean compared to the undrained soil planted to soybean. The temperature difference was most pronounced in the spring. Subsurface drainage is a valuable tool for farmers in the Red River Valley. Despite the clay soils, cold winter, and shorter growing season, subsurface drainage works and helps to improve the efficiency of farming large fields in an area that has consistently battled wet weather for the last ten years. At a time when commodity prices are at a record high, improving efficiency and productivity with subsurface drainage might be an option. Overall, tile drainage has the potential to drastically change how farming is conducted in the clay soils in eastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota.
Corn Hybrid Response to Skip-Row Planting Configurations and Plant Population in Western North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Lungren, Nathaniel James David
Management practices are needed for stable com (Zea mays L.) production in drought prone regions of western North Dakota. Analysis of weather data suggests areas like those near Mandan and Hettinger suffer severe drought about 50% of the time. Since most of the rainfall in western North Dakota is in early summer, the soil water reserves may be completely utilized by anthesis, which can result in low yields or crop failure because of corn's water requirement and sensitivity to stress during this period. Skip-row planting configurations can conserve water and improve grain yield in certain environments. The objective of this research was to identify hybrids and hybrid characteristics that are better adapted to skip-row planting configurations and the optimum plant population when rows are skipped. Three field trials were conducted in 2009 and 2010 in western North Dakota. Six hybrids with two populations were used within three planting configurations: plant every row (P All), plant two - skip one row (P2S1), and plant one - skip one row (P1S1). Weather data were also analyzed to determine the frequency of drought. The long-term average precipitation in Mandan is 43.3 cm annually. In 2009 and 2010, there was 48.4 and 48.0 cm of rain, respectively. Grain yields for the three environments analyzed, 2009 dry pea, 2010 dry pea, and 2010 sunflower residue, were 6.93, 6.97, and 6.97 Mg ha^-1, respectively. Planting configuration affected grain yield and plant population at harvest with P All having significantly more grain yield and final plant population than P2S1 and P1S1, which were not significantly different from one another. The P All, P2S1, and PlS1 grain 111 yields were 7.89, 6.78, and 6.27 Mg ha^-1, and the plant populations at harvest were 63,149, 51,608, and 45,622 plants ha^-1, respectively. The plant population partially explains the difference in grain yield for the three planting configurations. The two plant populations used in these experiments were 59,280 (high) and 44,460 (low) plants ha^-1, but at harvest they actually were 57,953 and 48,967 plants ha^-1, respectively. The higher plant population had significantly more grain yield and significantly Jess test weight. The grain yield for the high and low plant populations was 7 .19 and 6. 73 Mg ha^-1. The six hybrids tested were NuTech 3T-484, PH 38R51, NuTech 3C-389, DKC 33-54, DKC 30-23, and PH 39D97, and their grain yields were 7.76, 7.50, 7.07, 6.81, 6.42, and 6.20 Mg ha^-1, respectively. Overall, later maturing hybrids had significantly more grain yield than earlier maturing hybrids due to the optimal growing conditions. The earliest maturing hybrid PH 39D97 had significantly less grain yield than all of the other hybrids tested because it had a significantly lower plant population at harvest. The plant population of the other five hybrids did not differ significantly. In wet years such as 2009 and 2010, highest grain yield is attained by planting all rows with a plant population of 59,280 plants ha^-1 with later maturing hybrids, especially NuTech 31-484.
Increasing the Genetic Diversity of U.S. Northern Corn Belt Hybrids with Tropical and Temperate Exotic Germplasm
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Sharma, Santosh
The NDSU EarlyGEM or the Early Germplasm Enhancement of Maize (Zea maize L.) is a long term incorporation program designed to increase the genetic diversity of short season hybrids. Starting in 1999, exotic GEM breeding crosses derived from temperate accessions: BR52051, CH05015; tropical accessions: SCR01, CUBA17, FS8B; and tropical hybrid DKB844 along with late checks: B73, Mo17, and Iowa Stiff Stalk Synthetic (BSSS), were adapted to short-seasons and incorporated via a modified backcross (BC) procedure. This study was designed to assess the genetic diversity in exotic derived BC1:S1 lines and their competitive potential as sources of new and unique hybrids. Useful genetic diversity was evaluated with testers belonging to opposite heterotic groups, LH176 representing a non stiff stalk and TR3026 x TR2040 a stiff stalk testers and were tested in five North Dakota environments over two years (2009 and 2010). All the traits showed highly significant (P<0.01) differences across genotypes except root and stalk lodging. Among 236 experimental testcrosses, 64 were statistically not different (LSD, 0.05) to industry hybrids for grain yield. BC derived lines from BR52051, CHO5015, DKB844 showed diverse alleles for low grain moisture (below 87 relative maturity days) at harvest and high grain yield. SCR01, BR52051, CHO5015 and CUBA117 derived lines produced hybrids with high grain oil (4. 9% vs. 4.1%) and grain protein (10.4% vs. 9.1%) contents compared to top checks. The results showed that the exotic incorporations are the sources of unique new alleles for early maturing maize not present in existing US germplasms (e.g. B73, Mo17, and BSSS). Even though each exotic cross was unique to integrate diverse alleles, utilizing multiple unique exotic crosses for incorporation showed large variation for specific traits. Phenotypic correlations of traits showed grain moisture played the most important role for short season hybrid development. Exotic incorporation through NDSU EarlyGEM has shown a new way of breeding early maturing maize keeping the breeding program open and genetic diversity high.
Assessment of Bacterial Blight Pathogens Prevalent on Dry Bean and Identification of Sources of Resistance to Rhizoctonia Root Rot in North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Yen-Wei, Chang
Bacterial blights and root rots are two major diseases affecting dry edible bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production in North Dakota and Minnesota (Venette and Lamey 1998). Bacterial blights of dry bean are commonly caused by three bacterial pathogens, namely Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola (Psp), Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae (Pss) and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli (Xap), which can appear either together or independently under natural conditions. The bacterial portion of this study involved ascertaining the extent of incidence of bacterial blight in the major dry bean production areas of ND through surveys, determining the prevalence of Psp and Pss and screening a collection of commercial varieties from different market classes for resistance to these two bacterial pathogens. In this study, more than 50% of the fields surveyed in all the major dry bean producing counties, including Grand Forks, Pembina, Traill and Walsh from year 2008 to 2010, were found to have been affected by bacterial blight. Among the bacterial diseases, bacterial brown spot (caused by Pss) appeared to be the most prevalent. Representative isolates for both Psp and Pss randomly selected from the survey were used for pathogenicity tests and confirmed to be pathogenic. Race typing of the Psp isolates confirmed the presence of the races 6 and 8 in the field samples with race 6 being the most common. Susceptibility of the 11 varieties used in this study was also variable. Difference in aggressiveness was observed among the Psp isolates.
Single-seed Descent, Single-pod Descent, and Bulk Methods in Soybean
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Funada, Mizuki
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] breeders need to use the most efficient and inexpensive method to advance populations during the inbreeding process. Most breeders in the soybean industry prefer the bulk method because it requires less hand labor during harvest. This study used molecular markers to compare the single seed descent (SSD), the single-pod descent (SPD) and the bulk methods. The objective was to identify the most efficient method of inbreeding by determining which method had the greatest number of unique lines and the fewest pairs of redundant lines. The number of pairs of redundant lines was detem1ined by scoring each of 100 F 4 5 lines, developed from each of the three inbreeding methods, using 21 polymorphic SSR markers. A similarity coefficient (Sxv) was used to determine the level of similarity between each possible pair of lines within each inbreeding method. The SSD method was used as a control to identify the number of lines that were identical by descent for the SPD and bulk methods. Unique lines were lines that were not paired with any other line within that inbreeding method for the specified level of genetic similarity. At the Sxy =::: 0.875 level of genetic similarity, 49% of the lines were unique for the SSD, 44% of the lines were unique for the SPD, and 39% of the lines were unique for the bulk method, but the difference in the number of unique lines among methods was not significant. For the SSD method, zero lines were identical by descent with another line. For the SPD method, at the Sxy? 0.875, there were 16 pairs oflines that were identical by descent. For the bulk method, at the Sxy? 0.875, there were 42 pairs of lines that were identical by descent. This result was evidence that due to genetic sampling, there were more redundant lines for the bulk method and SPD than for the SSD method. The number of unique lines developed by each of the three inbreeding methods is the most important measure of the relative efficiency of each method. However, there was no significant difference in the number of unique lines among these methods. Therefore, the most efficient method should be the method that requires the least time and labor during harvest. The SSD method requires too much time during harvest to be practical for a commercial soybean breeder. The decision as to whether to use the SPD or bulk method will depend on which of those two methods is the most practical for that specific breeding program.
Ascochyta Rabiei in North Dakota: Characterization of the Secreted Proteome and Population Genetics
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Mittal, Nitin
Chickpea is one of the most important leguminous crops grown in regions of southern Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and the United States. Ascochyta blight, caused by Ascochyta rabiei, is the most important foliar disease of chickpea. In favorable conditions, this disease can destroy the entire chickpea field within a few days. In this project the secreted proteins of Ascochyta rabiei have been characterized through one and two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. This is the first proteomic study of the A. rabiei secretome, and a standardized technique to study the secreted proteome has been developed. A common set of proteins secreted by this pathogen and two isolates that exhibit the maximum and minimum number of secreted proteins when grown in modified Fries and Czapek Dox media have been identified. Population genetic studies of Ascochyta rabiei populations in North Dakota have been conducted using microsatellites and AFLP markers. Population genetic studies have shown that the ascochyta population in North Dakota has not changed genetically in the years 2005, 2006 and 2007, but the North Dakota population is different from the baseline population from the Pacific Northwest. The ascochyta population in North Dakota is a randomly mating population, as shown by the mating type ratio.
Evaluation of Pea Protein and Modified Pea Protein as Egg Replacers
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Hoang, Hieu Duy
Native yellow pea (Pisum sativum) protein isolates (PPIs) showed good foaming and emulsifying properties but a poor gelling characteristic. However, this can be corrected by Transglutaminase (TGase) treatment. PPIs were obtained using alkaline extraction method in which extracting pH, precipitating pH, flour–to–water ratio, and extraction time were optimized to obtain maximum yields and least change in protein functionalities. Extraction pH of 10.0, precipitating pH of 4.3, flour–to–water ratio of 1:6, and 30 minute extraction time were found to be optimum values for pea protein extraction. SDS–PAGE gels showed that the PPI had a very similar protein molecular weight profile as its original flour. TGase treatment was applied on PPIs at different pH levels from 4.3 to 7.0. The SDS–PAGE and RVA tests showed that treatment at pH 6.0 provided the best overall functionality. Large molecular weight (MW) proteins (~ 90,000 Da) and medium MW proteins (~50,000 – 80,000 Da) were the main substrates for TGase catalyzed reaction whereas most low MW the proteins (< 45,000 Da) were not involved. RVA results indicated that treatments at pH 6.0 and 7.0 had the highest viscosities but the treatment at pH 6.0 had better stability and consistency. Functionality tests indicated that modified PPIs possessed a better viscosity profile than the native PPIs but no improvement in gelling capacity and only minor impact on foaming and emulsifying properties. PPIs performance greatly depended on their final pHs. The foaming capacity, foaming stability, and emulsion capacity were significantly improved when the final pH of PPIs was adjusted from 4.3 to 7.0. The overall sensory evaluation results suggested that TGase–treated PPIs and PPIs were not yet able to replace egg in the cake system. Only PPI can replace egg in the cookie system. TGase–treated samples had a lower acceptability due to an “off–taste” and a “strange” flavor. Future work, therefore, should study TGase combined with other treatments to further improve PPIs functionalities. Purification should be integrated into extraction process and other food systems should also be included to extent the scope and role of modified PPIs in food industry.
Identification of Molecular Markers Linked to X-Disease Resistance in Chokecherry
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Wang, Hongxia
X-disease, caused by phytoplasmas, is one of the destructive diseases in stone fruit trees, causing yield loss and poor fruit quality. So far no effective methods are available to control X-disease. X-disease resistance has been first discovered in chokecherry (Prunus virginiana, 2n=4x=32), which is a native woody species of North America. To identify molecular markers linked to X-disease resistance, simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were used to construct genetic linkage maps for chokecherry and to identify markers associated with X-disease resistance in chokecherry. In this research, three segregating populations of chokecherry were developed by crossing one X-disease resistant (CL) with three susceptible chokecherry lines (a, c, and d), of which the progenies were 101, 177, and 82, respectively. In order to construct a genetic map for chokecherry, 108 pairs of SSR primers were employed from other Prunus species. Additionally, a set of 246 SSRs were developed from chokecherry sequencing by Roche 454 sequencing technology. A total of 354 pairs of SSR primers were used to screen individuals of all three populations. Two software programs, TetraploidMap and JoinMap, were used to construct linkage map based on single-dose restriction fragments (SDRFs) and two parental linkage maps were generated for each population from both software programs. Bulked segregant analysis (BSA) was applied for identification of X-disease resistance markers. As a result, one SSR marker was found to be linked to the X-disease resistance. The set of 246 chokecherry SSRs was later used to test transferability among another 11 rosaceous species (sour cherry, sweet cherry, wild cherry, peach, apricot, plum, apple, crabapple, pear, june berry, and raspberry). As a result, chokecherry SSR primers can be transferable in Prunus species or other rosaceous species. An average of 63.2% and 58.7% of amplifiable chokecherry primers amplified DNA from cherry and other Prunus species, respectively, while 47.2% of amplifiable chokecherry primers can be transferable to other rosaceous species. The genetic information, including genetic map, disease linked marker, chokecherry sequence, and confirmed transferability of the identified chokecherry SSRs to other species, will benefit the genetic research in Prunus and other rosaceous species.

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