Emergency Management

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Research from the Department of Emergency Management. The department website may be found at https://www.ndsu.edu/emgt/

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Organizational Characteristics of A Disaster Call Center ;\ Study of Information Management
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Khatchadourian, Marc Adrian
This study examines how information was managed in a call center during the response to a major flood event on the Red River in the upper Midwest. The event affected the cities of Fargo, North Dakota and Moorhead, Minnesota. This study involved two rounds of data collection: first, complete participant observation in the call center, and second, in-depth qualitative interviews of call center workers. It also includes a I 9-clay reconstruction of the flood event based on newspaper articks during the incident. The results of this study arc examined within the context of complex systems theory and other theoretical concepts within the scope of information management in emergency management response systems. This study discusses the impact ol'rolc familiarity and the assumption of collective intelligence on the disaster call center's ability to manage infornrntion during the flood response operations.
Assessing the Preparedness and Mitigation Research on Tornadoes: Clarifying Risk Perceptions and Identifying Contradictions
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Freeman, Pierre Albert
This paper examines literature from various disciplines contributing to the objective of saving lives and reducing damages from tornadoes. Specific topics include changes in tornado incidence, the genesis of tornadoes, and alterations in geographical distributions of tornadoes. I also review data on damages, casualties and deaths along with associated housing type vulnerability and atypical nocturnal tornado events. Literature associated with predictions including historical data and forecasting is addressed. Further data was presented regarding false alarms, warnings, watches and response behavior. Finally, mitigation issues regarding policy and planning, building practices and sheltering is reviewed. While reviewing the data, several contradictions were found regarding density, lead time expectations, vehicular use and actual increases in events and damages. Perception of risk may be dependent on factors of cultural geography and societal memory. Improved understanding of warning times, effective education, outreach and removing the human factor in tornadoes are points that need further study.
The Simultaneous Evacuation of a Midwestern Community's Multiple Healthcare Facilities during a Major Flood Event: A Study in Decision-Making and Implementation
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Berwari, Azad
Natural disasters are a part of the ecological system, so they are beyond human control. To reduce devastating effects, researchers in Emergency Management seek to understand the causes and cycles of natural disasters so that warning systems may be improved and better advice may be given to the general public about protecting themselves and their property. Emergency management is a relatively new discipline, so much research is still needed to understand the complex interaction of human activity and the natural environment. Therefore, this study was designed to explore the impact of the 2009 flood on the healthcare system in Fargo, North Dakota, and Moorhead, Minnesota, when many health facilities were evacuated. This research is unique because it examined the simultaneous evacuation of multiple healthcare facilities: two Fargo hospitals, all Fargo nursing homes, and the largest Moorhead nursing home. A qualitative approach was used: 27 in-depth interviews were conducted with leaders of the healthcare facilities and other involved parties (e.g., community officials, ambulance providers, public health personnel) to understand their decisions and actions as a record flood triggered evacuations. The researcher found that (1) the healthcare facilities had done minimal pre-planning and preparation for the flood, even though the area had been threatened by previous flooding, and (2) each facility wasted time and resources by working independently to arrange transportation and to locate alternative healthcare facilities to house their patients. The recommendation is made that healthcare facilities coordinate their efforts during natural disasters.
Coordination in Disaster Recovery: Implications for Policy and Practice
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Bundy, Sarah Jo
Disaster scholarship and recent disaster policy in the United States have suggested that coordination of efforts in the disaster recovery process will allow impacted jurisdictions to maximize positive recovery outcomes. Yet it remains unclear exactly who should be, or is, coordinating disaster recovery at the local level. This study explored the role of county elected officials in disaster recovery in an attempt to understand what role these elected officials currently play in the recovery process—particularly as related to the coordination of recovery efforts. During the initial data collection process, the researcher discovered that the role of county elected officials in disaster recovery appears to be consistent with their routine, day-to-day role in county government. No one person within the impacted counties was charged with a coordinator role in recovery. The researcher expanded the focus of the study to explore whether there were disaster conditions that necessitate overall coordination in order to best negotiate the recovery process and, if so, who was fulfilling that overall coordination role and what were they doing as part of it. Data was initially collected through 20 in-depth, telephone interviews with county elected officials in twelve states. Grounded theory was used to conceptualize the overall research design and analyze the data. Based on theoretical sampling, an additional 22 in-depth, telephone interviews were completed with a combination of county elected officials, emergency managers, designated recovery coordinators, and municipal mayors. The data showed that overall coordination in disaster recovery as implied by the literature and supported in federal policy did not appear to be currently happening—at least not at the county level. Coordination—to the extent that it was occurring in most jurisdictions—could best be described as in pockets and ad hoc. However, the study was unable to determine the extent to which this absence of coordination represents a problem in recovery. Based on the findings of this research, it would seem that there is a discrepancy between the literature-based idealization of coordination in recovery and the ad hoc coordination materializing in practice that needs to be addressed by both researchers and practitioners.
Informal Material Convergence Behavior and Emergency Management: Looking a Gift Horse in the Mouth
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Cole-Corde, Aleczandre Nikoluas
Informal material convergence behavior is the spontaneous movement of unsolicited donations from donors to emergency management for disaster relief activities. This behavior is widely accepted as an appropriate social response after disasters. However, this behavior frequently results in excessive amounts of unsolicited donations which create numerous problems for emergency management. Most donors appear unaware of the issues associated with contributing unsolicited donations. The challenge is to reeducate the media and the public about what are considered the appropriate types of donations to contribute for disaster survivors. Informal material convergence behavior is a problem that can be resolved through social-psychological approaches. Social-psychological research can be used in donation strategies to help solve this problem. This includes incorporating persuasive techniques into hazard awareness messaging, using technology and social media to convey the messaging, and conducting more disaster research and monitoring to ascertain if messaging is received, interpreted, and acted upon as intended.
Local Nonprofit and Government Organization Conceptualizations of Disaster Response Effectiveness
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Borkosheva, Nazgul
This study attempted to explore how nonprofit and government organizations conceptualize disaster response effectiveness using an internet survey. Unfortunately, the data collected through this method was insufficient for meaningful data analysis, and, therefore this study was unable to generate significant findings with respect to its research question. Thus, rather than focusing on a presentation of results from data collection and interpreting the significance of those results, this thesis focuses on justification of the need for research on this topic, review of the literature that suggests it is likely that nonprofits and government perceive disaster response effectiveness differently, recounting of the initial data collection efforts undertaken and the problems encountered, offering of hypotheses for future testing based on analysis of the flawed data, and recommendation of an alternate data collection method that should be used in the future.
Developing Higher Education Programs in Emergency Management: Ghana's Experience
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Yakubu, Mariama Bisongu
Ghana is highly vulnerable and threatened by several hazards and has sought ways of minimizing impacts of hazards events over time including demonstrating an interest in developing an emergency management training and an higher education degree program. Yet, as of 2013, the country has not developed a disaster management training program or a degree program. This study investigated Ghana’s efforts to see these programs develop with a particular focus on identifying the factors involved in explaining the current status of Ghana’s efforts. Purposive and snowball sampling were used to select 19 emergency management scholars and practitioners who have been involved with Ghana’s efforts. An additional 6 faculty members who have been involved with development of other new degree programs in 4 Ghanaian universities were selected through snowball sampling for the purposes of comparison with the data collected from those involved in efforts to initiate an emergency management higher education degree program. The data collection was done through in-depth semi-structured face-to-face and telephone interviews. Both the data collection and analysis were guided by Rubin and Rubin’s (2005) Responsive Interviewing Model. The data show that although Ghana intends to develop an emergency management degree program in the future, its efforts, to date, have been geared towards developing a training program. The results suggest that six main factors explain why Ghana has not yet established the emergency management training program it intends to first develop. The factors include institutional support, partnership, advocacy, funding, program marketing, and cultural factors. Further, the results show that there are likely to be six other factors to address if, and when Ghana decides to pursue an emergency management degree program. These factors include faculty issues, student issues, supporting learning materials, professional legitimacy, accreditation and curriculum development, and autonomy and administrative location.
Sustainability and the Emergency Manager: Do They Mesh?
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Chauvet, Regine Laurence
There exists a lack of consensus around the definition of “sustainability” and numerous of applications of the concept in the disaster literature. Reviewing the disaster literature on sustainability, its intended audience, and the disciplines that inform it, a disconnect between the strategies proposed and the current role of county emergency managers in the U.S is evident. This study qualitatively explored how sustainability is conceptualized and perceived to be applicable at the local level by interviewing county emergency managers in the states of Florida and North Dakota. The study demonstrated that the lack of definitional clarity evidenced in the disaster literature is also reflected in emergency manager conceptualizations of sustainability. However, themes related to meaning were identified in the interviewed managers’ conceptualizations of sustainability, contextual factors influencing these conceptualizations offered, and implications of these findings for the development of the profession and discipline of emergency management discussed.
An Exploration of the Creation and Maintenance of Local Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Jorissen, James Daniel
This study sought to explore the factors that influence the creation and maintenance of Local Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (LVOADs). Semistructured interviews were conducted and data was analyzed following the principles of Grounded Theory as outlined by Charmaz (2006). Seventeen individuals were selected based on their involvement in five LVOADs within FEMA’s Region VIII. It was found that creation factors held a high degree of consistency LVOAD-to-LVOAD, but the maintenance factors suffered from a limited number of available LVOADs that progressed to the maintenance stage. Findings suggest communities require multiple hazard events, strong leadership, and a formal organizational structure to develop LVOADs and they are difficult to maintain. Throughout creation, LVOADs face a number of barriers including burnout, turnover, and turf issues. During maintenance, LVOADs attempted to counteract barriers by offering value with membership. This study concludes with implications for emergency management practice and the academic discipline.
Factors Explaining the Risk Perception of County Emergency Managers
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Huibregtse, Jared Jon
This thesis attempted to explore how county emergency managers understand the risks most likely to manifest in their jurisdiction using an internet survey. This study addressed the following research questions: 1) What risks do county emergency managers perceive to be the most likely to manifest in their jurisdiction? 2) What factors explain their risk perceptions? Data were collected by internet survey which was sent to county emergency managers in FEMA Region V. When data collection ceased, 165 county emergency managers had completed the internet survey in full. Regression analysis revealed that a small amount of the variance in risk perception was explained. The notion of extending traditional variables professionally in a way that makes sense for county emergency managers proved to be valuable. Additionally, operationalization issues raised in this study can be used as valuable lessons learned for future risk perception research.
Factors Associated with Collaboration in Disaster Response
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Carignan, Stanley Allan
This paper explores the factors the literature suggests help organizations collaborate during disaster response. The nature of disasters requires that people and organizations collaborate; yet, collaboration has been frequently identified as a problem by policymakers and researchers alike. It would be of value to policymakers and researchers if there was an understanding of the factors that contribute to collaboration. The paper attempted to address this issue. It identifies four categories of variables that the literature suggests lead to inter-organizational collaboration including leadership, relationships, culture, and inter-dependency. The paper also suggests how understanding of these factors might be applied in practice, policy, and future research.
Pre-Disaster Integration of Community Emergency Response Teams within Local Emergency Management Systems
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Carr, John Alexander
This study explores how Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) were integrated within local emergency management systems pre-disaster. Semi-structured interviews were conducted following Rubin and Rubin’s (2005) Responsive Interviewing Model with 21 CERT team coordinators in FEMA Region VII (Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska). It found that teams varied with regard to integration, and this variance could be explained by a number of related factors. Results suggest that if a team has a skilled leader, stability as an organization, and acceptance by the local emergency management system, they are more likely to be integrated than a team that is lacking some or all of the aforementioned factors. This study categorizes teams on a continuum according to their integration. Finally, this study concludes with a discussion of implications for practice, policy, and research, as well as recommendations for practice and research.
A Conceptual Model of the Individual and Household Recovery Process: Examining Hurricane Sandy
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Gould, Laura Ann
This study examined how comprehensively the Bolin and Trainer (1978) model of recovery reflects the recovery process of individuals and households. A review of the literature since 1978 suggested that various revisions and additions were warranted, but additional research was needed to examine these elements collectively. Rubin and Rubin’s (2012) Responsive Interviewing Model was employed to collect and analyze data related to the recovery process of individuals impacted by Hurricane/Superstorm Sandy to determine whether an updated model was appropriate. Interviews with twenty-one respondents representing non-governmental organizations involved in Sandy-related recovery efforts revealed the need for a revised model reflecting key aspects of the original model, revisions suggested by the literature, and a new addition based on the data collected through this study. A Revised Bolin and Trainer Model of Individual and Household Recovery was suggested and implications for the discipline and practice of emergency management discussed.
A Comparative Study of Nuclear Power Risk Perceptions with Selected Technological Hazards
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Duff, David Edwin
How people perceive risk or threats is important to many disciplines that seek to assist policy makers in developing policies, regulations and laws. Using the previous work of Slovic et al. (Fischhoff, Slovic, Lichtenstein, Read and Combs, 2000; Slovic P., 1992; Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein, 2000) in development of the psychometric paradigm, a sample of residents (n=600) from a region with a large number of nuclear reactors was surveyed. The question set was expanded to include demographic questions to determine if they impact risk perception. Two aspects of risk perception were examined, perception of overall risk and perception of riskiness along specific dimensions of concern identified previously in the literature. For both risk and riskiness, respondents’ perceptions of nuclear power were compared to three other perceptions of technologies including use of modern farming methods using chemicals, railroad transportation and coal-generated electricity. The recent increase in public concern about nuclear power following the meltdowns at the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant led to the expectation that nuclear power would be rated higher in overall risk and riskiness than the other three technologies consistent with Slovic’s earlier work on risk perception. This expectation was generally supported although respondents tended to perceive modern farming methods using chemical as similar in overall risk and riskiness to nuclear power. The research specifically tested five hypotheses concerning the impact of five demographic factors: gender, race, income, education and political orientation on the overall perception of risk and riskiness. Subsequent analysis using analysis of variance and linear regression found that select demographics only explained 2% of the risk perception for nuclear power generation.
Formation and Lifespans of Emergent Recovery Groups in Post-Katrina New Orleans
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Montano, Samantha Lea
Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, numerous groups emerged to address recovery related needs in Orleans and St. Bernard Parishes. The phenomenon of emergent groups is widely noted in the disaster literature, but there has been little empirical research focusing on these groups. And, the existing literature discusses emergent groups primarily in the context of response. This study sought to explore the factors related to formation of emergent recovery groups (ERGs) and allow ERGs to have an extended lifespan. Data was gathered through in-depth interviews with founders of twenty ERGs that formed to work in Orleans and St. Bernard Parishes. It was found that the factors related to group formation were the same factors that contributed to the continued existence of the ERG including post-event community situational context, unmet needs, a group driver/leader, ability to network, level of integration, and resources.
Jurisdictional Leaders' Perception of Factors that Contribute to Hazard Mitigation Planning
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Abe, Daiko Nephi
Recent disasters have demonstrated the importance of mitigating their potential impact to not only protect human lives, but to also reduce the seemingly unending cycle of repeated damages. The Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 requires state, local, and tribal governments to have FEMA-approved Hazard Mitigation Plans in order to qualify for certain types of Federal funding. However, even with these mandates in place, there are a number of local governments that have yet to adopt a FEMA-approved multi-hazard mitigation plan. Although multi-hazard mitigation plans seem rational for reducing the impact of hazards, efforts to prepare plans and implement mitigation-related activities are oftentimes met with resistance at the local jurisdictional level. The purpose of this qualitative study is to inductively examine the social, financial, and political conditions and forces that contribute to the decision to adopt or not adopt a hazard mitigation plan in the Red River Valley.
The Context and Concept of Individual and Household Preparedness: The Case of Fako Division in Cameroon
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Nojang, Emmanuel Nzengung
Almost every day, we see and hear about disasters impacting individuals and households in communities worldwide. Impacts experienced include loss of life and injury, loss of property, and more. Disasters are often devastating for those who experience them. It is for this reason that preparedness is advocated by national and international organizations such as the Federal Emergency Management Agency and the United Nations. And, it is for this reason that researchers have often attempted to assess how prepared people are. Yet, what is this thing they call preparedness? What does it look like? What is involved in becoming a wholly prepared person? One might have assumed that organizations like FEMA and researchers would have addressed these fundamental questions prior to recommending that people become prepared or measuring how prepared people are, but that is not the case. The absence of an understanding of what preparedness is and entails is a critical theoretical gap with significant practical implications. This research explored the basic issue of what preparedness means and entails to people in Fako Division, Cameroon—a place threated by many hazards and which has experienced many disasters. From the analysis of the 33 interviews conducted in this study, the researcher found that preparedness is a dynamic state of readiness that is dependent on context, a social process, and a process of completing activities to save lives and minimize the effects of disasters. In addition, the researcher found that Cameroonians view a wholly prepared person as a) one who would have knowledge about hazards and what to do about them, b) one who would engage others, including their families and neighbors, in discussions about activities related to hazards and what to do about them, and c) one who would engage in activities to minimize loss from hazards, sustain themselves in the face of hazards, and flee from hazards. The findings from the interview data synch to a large extent with what is implied, but not clearly stated, in the existing research literature. The researcher address this synchrony and posit a definition of preparedness and identify the theoretical components of preparedness.
An Evaluation of the Protective Action Decision Model using Data from a Train Derailment in Casselton, North Dakota
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Savitt, Amanda
This study was designed to answer the questions: a) What factors affected peoples' decision to evacuate or not evacuate after a train derailment and explosion in Casselton, ND; and b) What factors affected the amount of time people took to evacuate? A survey was designed using criteria from literature on the Protective Action Decision Model, and administered by telephone. Results of the survey were examined with correlation analysis. Nine factors were found to be significantly correlated with the decision to evacuate and two variables were found to be significantly correlated with evacuation time. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Are We Just Guessing? An Exploratory Study of Minnesota Emergency Managers' Perceptions of Citizen Preparedness
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Koval, Breanna Colette
Emergency management research suggests that citizen preparedness is paramount to household survival in disasters. Thus, having a citizenry that is well prepared is ideal for individuals who work directly in emergency management and disaster response roles. At the lowest governmental level, it is the local emergency manager who is tasked with the job of promoting preparedness to their respective jurisdictions. However, to effectively promote preparedness to citizens, it is presumed that an emergency manager would need a fairly accurate perception of citizen preparedness. However, emergency managers rarely have data to determine their jurisdiction’s level of preparedness. Without data to inform a perception, how does an emergency manager determine the preparedness of his or her jurisdiction? This study explores two possible cognitive heuristics that could play a role in how county-level emergency managers form their perceptions of preparedness; the availability heuristic and the false consensus effect.
Red River Flooding in Fargo: Organizational Learning Through Repeated Events
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Thompson, Steven Andrew
This research is a case study of the spring flooding from the Red River in Fargo, North Dakota. The 1997 record flood level broke a long standing record. However, in the last 7 years there have been three additional major floods, with 2009 breaking the 1997 level. The purpose of the study is to understand what was learned from repeated major flood events. This qualitative research gathered pertinent data from leaders involved in the flood management. In-depth interviews gathered rich data on these topics. The results from this case study found evolution in coordination, communication, response organizations, and mitigation. Specifically, the data revealed the expansion of the leadership team, expansion of communication, reduction in hazard vulnerability, increased focus on logistical planning for sandbags, and reduction in volunteer variability. All of these actions learned from these flood events are transferable and therefore add to the current emergency management body of knowledge on flood planning.

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