Psychology Masters Theses

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Gaze Cuing, Familiarity, and the Self
(North Dakota State University, 2009) Wadeson, Heather Kay
Attention researchers have known for over a decade that people have a tendency to shift their attention automatically to a location gazed at by another person (e.g., Friesen & Kingstone, 1998). This social orienting appears to be reflexive in nature, and yet it also seems to be influenced by contextual factors and individual differences (for a review, see Frischen & Tipper, 2007). In the present document, I investigated how the familiarity of the gaze cue provider influences individuals' tendency to shift attention to a gazed-at location. The main questions addressed in the research are: (1) What is the role of familiarity in responding to gaze direction? and (2) If an effect of familiarity is observed, does it generalize to the situation of orienting in response to one1s own gaze direction? My results indicated that participants did orient to a gaze cue provided by their own face, as well as to gaze cues provided by the faces of a friend and a same-sex stranger. Findings which address the roles of the familiarity of the gazing face and of individual differences (i.e., self-esteem, autistic tendencies) among participants will also be discussed.
Antisocial and Prosocial Peer Experiences and Social Cognitions as Predictors of Children's Responses to Harassment from Peers.
(North Dakota State University, 2009) Visconti, Kari Jeanne
The current study examined whether prosocial and antisocial peer experiences and cognitions are predictive of changes in children's coping behaviors in response to peer victimization. Longitudinal data spanning two time points across two consecutive school years were analyzed. Participants included 305 children who were in the 3rd and 4th grades at the beginning of the study. Peer victimization, a significant form of peer stress for many youth, and positive peer treatment were examined, as well as the beliefs children hold about the characteristics and dispositions of their peers (e.g.,peer beliefs), including both antisocial peer beliefs (i.e., perceptions of agemates as mean, bossy, and untrustworthy) and prosocial peer beliefs (i.e., perceptions of agemates as prosocial, cooperative, and helpful). Five coping strategies were examined - support seeking from friends, parents, and teachers, behavioral avoidance, and retaliation. A series of regressions was performed in which children's coping in the Spring of their 4th or 5th grade year served as the criterion variable. Analyses controlled for children's use of these strategies during the Spring of their 3rd and 4th grade year, respectively, allowing for a test of changes in responses to peer victimization. Children's antisocial and prosocial peer treatment and peer beliefs in the Spring of the 3rd or 4th grade were the primary predictors, and interactions between sex and peer treatment and peer beliefs were included in each regression equation. Results demonstrate that victimization is predictive of decreased retaliation for all children as well as decreased friend support seeking for girls, but not for boys. Prosocial peer treatment was associated with marginal decreases in parent support seeking for girls and was predictive of iv increases in friend support seeking for all children. Although no significant relations were found between antisocial peer beliefs and children's coping with victimization, prosocial peer beliefs were predictive of decreases in retaliation for boys; however this relation was not significant for girls. Furthermore, that friendship moderated the link between victimization and retaliation such that peer victimization predicted decreases in retaliation over time for those children with no mutual friendships in their classroom. Findings from this study help elucidate how children's social experiences and related cognitions contribute to the strategies they utilize when coping with peer victimization.
Literal vs. Symbolic Immortality: Exploring the Relative Strengths of Religious Paths to Death-Transcendence
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Juhl, Jacob Timothy
According to terror management theory, religious worldviews provide protection from mortality concerns by providing feelings of literal immortality ( conscious life after death) and symbolic immortality (the essence of one's self or identity living after death). Although research has shown that both feelings of literal and symbolic immortality provide protection from mortality concerns, no studies have sufficiently compared the relative strength of these forms of immortality. To investigate their relative strengths as death anxiety buffers, three studies made mortality (MS) or a control topic salient and then made salient aspects of religion that provide symbolic or literal immortality ( or social affiliation-Study 3). Subsequently, religious worldview defense (Study 1) and search for meaning (Studies 2-3) were measured. In Study 1, results revealed that compared to the salience of literal immortality (and neutral condition), the salience of symbolic immortality increased religious worldview defense after MS. Studies 2 and 3 revealed that compared to the salience of literal immortality (Study 2) or the social aspects of religion (Study 3), the salience of symbolic immortality mitigated MS-engendered search for meaning. Taken together, these studies suggest that feelings of symbolic immortality generally provide a better defense against mortality concerns.
Creativity and Randomness
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Zabelina, Darya Lvovna
Major theories of creative cognition are reviewed in the present thesis. These theories are diverse yet seem to converge on similar key processes. One definition of creativity emphasizes going beyond stereotypical responses in the service of truly novel thought patterns. However, the generation of remotely associated elements must be done in a 111 controlled, goal directed manner. To examine stereotypic and novel thought patterns, I used a cognitive measure termed Random Number Generation (RNG). Baseline tendencies reflecting departures from randomness ('trait' tendencies) were assessed, as were tendencies exhibited in a condition in which participants were asked to type number sequences in as random an order as possible ('ability'). Creative originality and creative achievement were found to relate to lower trait randomness on the Repetition of Responses factor of RNG. Creative fluency and creative flexibility, on the other hand, were related to higher ability for randomness according to the Prepotent Associates factor of RNG. Results indicate that the ability to overcome stereotyped sequences is beneficial for generating ideas, but that a certain rhythmicity of responding facilitates creative achievement. Limitations of the study and future directions are discussed.
I'm Seeing Red!Literally: The Effect of Metaphoric Representation on Perception
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Fetterman, Adam Kent
Metaphor is often used to represent abstract concepts using concrete domains (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). One set of metaphors that has long been of interest, but seldom studied, is the set of those linking color and emotion. Specifically, red and anger are often linked in everyday language and popular media. There is a recent body of work on metaphoric representation processes, yet none of it has focused on color perception. The present studies investigate the effects of priming anger-related concepts and experiences on the visual perception of color. It was predicted that participants would perceive degraded color screens as red following the activation of anger-related thoughts (Study 1) and when made angry (Study 2), consistent with the "seeing red" metaphor for anger. Both hypotheses were supported. Implications of the findings are discussed.
Rumination and Problem Solving: A Focus on Dispositions, Processes, and the Five-Step Framework
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Scheller, Katey Rae
Rumination is a method of responding to and coping with negative moods that involves repetitively and passively focusing on the causes, consequences, and symptoms of negative mood (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991 ). Research has indicated that rumination may be an important vulnerability factor for depression. The present study aimed to add to this literature by investigating the deleterious effects that rumination, the process and characteristic trait, has on all five stages of problem solving. The primary hypothesis was that individuals who were high in trait rumination would demonstrate the least effective problem solving performance when induced to ruminate in comparison to when they were induced to distract and in comparison to those low in trait rumination. Overall, the results did not support this hypothesis. The single significant finding was that individuals rated their solutions as less effective when distracting, regardless of trait rumination. This paper critically reviews the literature on the relationship between rumination and problem solving and makes several suggestions for future research.
The Influence of Vulnerable Narcissism on College Adjustment
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Dombeck, Joseph James
Attending a university is one of the first major life transitions for many young adults, and it presents a number of important challenges, difficulties, and stressors. Thus, students with certain personality characteristics may be especially susceptible to developing adjustment problems while in college. Because vulnerable narcissism is associated with several characteristics that have been implicated as risk factors for poor adjustment to college (e.g., low self-esteem, use of maladaptive coping strategies, insecure attachment styles, and hypersensitivity to criticism), it may place college students at higher risk for maladjustment and negative health-related symptoms during their first year. This hypothesis was tested with a two-month longitudinal design in a sample of 319 first-year students during their first semester of college. Higher levels of vulnerable narcissism (but not grandiose narcissism) at Time 1 predicted poorer college adjustment, lower levels of social support, and higher levels of negative health symptoms at Time 2. Therefore, vulnerable narcissism appears to be a risk factor for developing health/adjustment problems during the first semester of college.
Conquering Avoidance by Avoiding Death: The Effects of Mortality Salience on Goal Value, Goal Commitment, and Goal Pursuit in Depressive Individuals
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Myxter, Peter John
Research into the antecedents and consequences of successful goal pursuit is reviewed within the framework of a proposed existential intervention for depression. Behavioral perspectives propose that insufficient goal pursuit and concomitant positive reinforcement leads to depressed mood. While substantial research has been conducted examining the relation between goal pursuit and psychological well-being, little research exists regarding strategies for fostering increased motivation for goal pursuit in depressed individuals. This review suggests that novel strategies for increasing goal pursuit motivation can be derived from the existential paradigm of Terror Management Theory (TMT). Past TMT research indicates that reminders of mortality lead to greater valuing of the standards and values of one's cultural worldview. The current study screened a sample of individuals exhibiting depressed mood to examine whether reminders of mortality lead to greater valuing and pursuit of individualized goals. Participants were randomly assigned to mortality salience or control condition and completed depression and well-being measures in a baseline session and a follow-up session two weeks later. Results indicated that reminders of mortality did not lead to greater valuing and pursuit of individualized goals.
Hawk and Dove Stress Response Profiles in Humans
(North Dakota State University, 2011) McDonald-Morken, Colleen Ann
A recent evolutionary theory hypothesizes that there are two primary biobehavioral profiles of stress responding. Labeled "hawk" and "dove," each is characterized by divergent patterns of autonomic nervous system and neuroendocrine system activations in response to stress as well as distinct affective and behavioral tendencies. These profiles are prominent in a number of species, and it has been hypothesized that hawk-like and dovelike responses to stress may, in part, explain variability in stress-related health outcomes. This study is a preliminary investigation of hawk and dove biobehavioral profiles in humans. Participants included 73 Midwestern university students recruited from undergraduate-level psychology classes. Upon completion of a stressor task, participants answered questions regarding their psychological experiences during and immediately following the task and reported their emotions and health-related behaviors over the past several weeks. Physiological measures of cortisol and high frequency heart rate variability reactivity were used to identify relatively hawk-like and dove-like responders. Associations between patterns of physiological responding and emotional and behavioral responses were tested. The results showed mixed support for the existence of hawk and dove biobehavioral profiles in humans.
Changes in Negative Affect Following Pain (vs. Nonpainful) Stimulation in Individuals With and Without a History of Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Bresin, Konrad Winston
Theoretical models of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI; i.e., purposeful destruction of body tissue without suicidal intent) suggest that individuals engage in NSSI in order to regulate intense emotions. However, empirical support for these models is limited. This study attempted to address previous limitations by comparing the emotional response to a mood induction and pain (vs. nonpainful) heat stimulation in individuals with history ofNSSI (vs. no history of NSSI) following a negative mood induction. It was predicted that individuals with a history ofNSSI would have a larger increase in negative emotion following the mood induction, and individuals with a history of NSSI who are exposed to a painful stimuli would have the largest decrease in negative emotions compared to the other three groups. Though the first hypothesis was not supported, the second hypothesis received partial support. Clinical implications and future research directions are discussed.
The Relationship Between Features and Edge Types in Natural Images
(North Dakota State University, 2011) George, Jonathon Michael
One of the most important processes in the human visual system involves detecting and understanding edges. Edges allow humans to break a visual scene up into meaningful chunks of information. Without edges, a visual scene is meaningless. As important as edges are to human visual perception, how they are detected and classified is not well understood. This study provides evidence that humans are able to classify edges into appropriate categories when enough visual information is presented but objects in the scene are not detectable. In addition, this study shows that regions of interest (RO Is) of a particular edge type can be clustered according to similarities in structure using a simple algorithm. This study examines the relationship between image features (i.e. closure, texture & repetition) and the type or cause of an edge (i.e. albedo, depth, shadow & specular) in natural visual scenes. Two groups of human subjects were used to carry out the current study; the cause estimators (CEs) and the feature experts (FEs). The CEs were asked to state the cause of an edge presented in a ROI. The FEs were asked to label specific features for the same set of RO Is as the CEs. The first analysis describes the relationship between image features and the actual cause of the edge in the ROis presented. The second analysis describes the relationship between image features and the cause estimation provided by the CEs. This study provides evidence that closure, texture and repetition may help to inform human observers as to the cause of an edge when limited but sufficient visual information is available.
Does Discussing Problems Online Change the Nature of Co-rumination and Its Associated Effects on Negative Affect and Perceived Friendship Quality?
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Ranney, John D.
Engagement in problem-focused discussions that direct attention to negative emotions predicts heightened depressive affect and feelings of closeness with friends (Rose, 2002). The goal of this study was to test whether the psychosocial correlates of such conversations are altered by engaging in those conversations through computer-mediated forms of communication and to identify mechanisms that may account for those differences. Fifty-three female friend pairs engaged in problem-focused discussions in an online or face-to-face context. Observers rated expressed negative affect and information disclosure. Self-reports of self-disclosure, true self-expression, and feelings of similarity were obtained. Although participants interacting online were rated as exchanging less information than those interacting face-to-face, they reported feeling more similar, engaging in more self-disclosure, and expressing fewer aspects of their true self. Discussing problems online was indirectly related to feelings of closeness through greater felt similarity. Implications for the study of computer-mediated communication and problem-focused talk are discussed.
To Be or Not To Be: An Empirical Test of English Prime as Theory
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Boyd, Ryan Lee
English Prime is a language prescription advocating the abolition of all forms of the verb “to be” from usage. Such benefits of a “to be”-less form of communication might include an increased appreciation for the essential complexity of reality and the intangibility of certain forms of knowledge. However, to date, no English Prime claims have been rigorously examined in an empirical manner. A program of research systematically assessed individual differences in the use of the verb “to be” to determine their relationship to outcomes described by English Prime scholars. Relations between English Prime violations and the following theoretically relevant measures were examined: dialectical endorsement, temporal nonlinearity, interpersonal complexity, the dialectical self, arrogance, and neuroticism. No support was found for English Prime theory via these measures. Possible reasons for such null results and implications are discussed.
The Examination of the Effect of Nostalgia on Risk Factors for Suicide
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Sand, Elizabeth Claire
In order to investigate the relationship between nostalgic tendencies and risk factors for suicide, two studies were completed. Study 1 examined nostalgic tendencies among individuals with depression symptoms in order to see if those with nostalgic tendencies might have less risk factors for suicide. The Study 2 sought to examine if actually experiencing nostalgia reduced the risk factors for suicide and whether the effect was moderated by dysphoric symptoms. Results of Study 1 indicated that nostalgic tendencies do not have an impact on suicide risk above and beyond other factors like depression. Study 2 found that at medium and high levels of dysphoria, those in a nostalgia condition felt higher levels of perceived burdensomeness. Limitations and implications for future research are explored.
The Psychological Benefits of Positively-Focused Writing
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Schaible, Kelly LaRaine
Writing about potent positive events has been shown to be associated with physical health benefits in a manner similar to the expressive writing paradigm originally espoused by Pennebaker and Beall (1986). Little has been done to date, however, to explore the potential association of positive writing with aspects of psychological well-being. This project attempted to substantiate results of previous studies that have shown positive writing to be linked with not only the promotion of physical health, but indicators of psychological health such as life satisfaction and positive affect. Participants answered questions regarding their affect, life satisfaction, perceived stress, and physical symptoms in the prior week. They then wrote about either an extremely positive life event or a neutral topic. Participants completed the same questionnaires online a week later. While the writing exercise impacted momentary positive affect, it showed no effect on physical or psychological well-being after one week.
A Test of an Interactive Model of Binge Eating in Men
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Minnich, Allison
Past research has shown that a combination of high perfectionism, high body dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem is predictive of binge eating in college women (Bardone-Cone et al., 2006). The aim of the present study was to determine whether this triple interaction model was applicable to men. Male undergraduate college students from a Midwestern university (n=302) completed self-report measures online at two different time points. Analyses revealed a significant interaction between the three risk factors, such that high perfectionism, high body dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem at Time 1was predictive of greater Time 2 binge eating symptoms. However, the triple interaction was no longer clinically meaningful when baseline binge eating symptoms were statistically controlled for in the analysis. The model did not predict Time 2 anxiety or depressive symptoms, which suggests some specificity. These findings offer a greater understanding of the interactive nature of risk factors in predicting binge eating in men.
Intuitive Risk Aversion and Reflective Risk Taking in Gain-Framed Economic Games
(North Dakota State University, 2013) Liu, Tianwei
We typically think of risk taking as impulsive, but evolutionary pressure may actually favor playing it safe as a default strategy. In the context of dual-process theory of reasoning (Evans, 2003), we hypothesized that risk aversion is intuitive for an average decision maker and reflective thinking serves to reduce this intuition. This idea was tested in two studies using economic decision-making tasks. Information processing style was manipulated by forcing fast or slow decisions (Study 1) and by picture priming (Study 2). These manipulations did not affect decisions. We also measured participants' cognitive reflection ability as an individual difference variable in both studies. As expected, greater reflection ability predicted a greater frequency of risky choices (Study 1 and 2). The findings are consistent with the perspective that risk aversion is impulsive while risk taking is reflective, at least under certain conditions.
Re-Examining the Psychometric Properties of the Massachusetts General Hospital Hairpulling Scale
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Bauer, Christopher Charles
Trichotillomania is characterized by recurrent hair pulling resulting in hair loss and has been shown to have a significant impact on the health and social functioning of individuals with the disorder. Despite a growing presence in clinical and research settings, there are relatively few tools available to assess the severity of Trichotillomania, and data examining the reliability and validity of those measures are sparse. The goal of this study was to replicate and expand on previous examinations of the reliability and validity of the Massachusetts General Hospital Hairpulling Scale, a measure of Trichotillomania severity. Similar to previous studies, results showed acceptable internal consistency and provided evidence for divergent validity however, test-retest reliability was not acceptable and evidence for convergent validity was mixed. Implications of these results and suggestions for the future assessment of Trichotillomania severity are discussed.
Treating Objects like Women: The Impact of Terror Management and Objectification on the Perception of Women's Faces
(North Dakota State University, 2014) Roylance, Christina
According to terror management theory, humans are threatened by the awareness of death and counter this threat by investing in cultural systems that make them feel like they are more than mortal animals. Based on this proposition, it has been argued that women's bodies pose a unique existential threat, as they remind humans of their similarity to other biological organisms. However, no research thus far has examined how death awareness impacts perceptual assessments of women. The current study examined the effect of heightened death-awareness on perceptions of women's faces, utilizing face-morphing techniques that create a range of artificial-to-real faces. Results indicated that following a death-awareness induction, participants perceived artificial female faces as less artificial, but not necessarily more attractive. MS did not predict perceptions of male faces. These results suggest that existential concerns about death have an impact on perceptual assessments of women.
Urgency Predicts Differences in Cigarette Consumption
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Kuvaas, Nicholas Jacob
Smokers have been classified into three separate groups based on cigarette consumption where regular smokers consume more than 5 cigarettes a day, chippers consume 5 cigarettes a day or less, and social smokers only smoke when they drink alcohol. The current study examined smoking group differences by self-regulation, alcohol use, and alcohol-related problems. Participants (n = 535) completed an online survey. A 3-step multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze the data. When compared to regular smokers, chippers exhibited lower negative urgency (RRR = 0.94, p = .035). Social smokers consumed more alcohol (RRR = 2.37, p < .001), and exhibited lower negative urgency (RRR = 0.93, p = .004) than regular smokers. Compared to chippers, social smokers consumed more alcohol (RRR = 1.71, p = .001). These findings suggest there are notable differences between smoking classes. The results highlight the importance of examining different classes of smokers.

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