Animal Sciences Doctoral Work

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One-carbon metabolites, fetal growth, maternal oxidative stress, and fetal programming during early gestation
(North Dakota State University, 2024) King, Layla
In ruminant production systems, maternal nutrient intake and supplementation practices vary widely throughout the industry. Adequate maternal nutrient supply is critical for fetal development and subsequent offspring performance and health. Therefore, determining strategic supplementation of specific nutrients during critical developmental windows is crucial to fetal growth during early gestation will positively impact beef cattle production systems. In this dissertation, two experiments using beef heifers were conducted to test the hypothesis that differing maternal rate of gain (achieved through differing intake) during the first 63 d of pregnancy would compromise indices of maternal and fetal development; and that strategic nutrient supplementation would mitigate any negative responses to lower rates of maternal gain. Supplemental nutrients were methionine, choline, folate, and vitamin B12 and gain targets were 0.45 kg/heifer daily vs. -0.23 kg/heifer daily. Response variables used included heifer growth and carcass data, maternal oxidative stress, fetal organ weights, and differential expression genes in fetal muscle and liver. It was found that heifers with lower gains were negatively impacted and critical fetal organs during development were affected by maternal rate of gain and one-carbon metabolite supplementation. Furthermore, measures of maternal oxidative stress were affected by gain and supplementation. Many genes in fetal muscle and liver were differentially expressed due to levels of gain and supplementation. For instance, genes important for cell signaling and death were upregulated when there was one-carbon metabolite supplementation. In conclusion, providing the correct nutrients and amount during early gestation can have an effect on fetal development that may be seen in the offspring’s production life. A positive impact during early gestation will result in an increase in the offspring’s production capabilities.
Genetic Predictions Using Subjective Methods of Beef Cattle Temperament Evaluation, Genetic Association Between Beef Cattle Temperament and Production Traits, and Influence of Sire and Dam Temperament on Calf Performance
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Celestino, Elfren
Beef cattle temperament is not only important to handler safety and animal welfare but also found to be related to productivity and thereby, considered an economically important trait. Constraints to improve cattle temperament are due to the inherent complexity of this trait and difficulty in measurement. Our findings suggest that traditional subjective methods (DS; docility score and TS; temperament score) of beef cattle temperament evaluation has less effect in genetic merit predictions (heritability estimates and estimated breeding value ranking) provided that evaluator is included in the model. Our novel movement-based objective method (four-platform standing scale, FPSS) using standard deviation of FPSS data (SSD) and coefficient of variation of SSD (CVSSD) can be use in place of DS and TS, but more appropriately with TS which had higher association based on genetic correlation analysis. Calf temperament had significant effect on adjusted birth weight (ABW), adjusted 205 weaning weight (205-d WW), weaning average daily gain (ADG), and weight gain (WG) where there is an increased ABW, 205-d WW, ADG, and WG with calmer temperament calves. Based on genetic correlation, ABW, 205-d WW, ADG, and WG may not be associated with calf temperament due to low correlations to majority of our models. Lastly, we found significant association between dam temperament and calf 205-d WW, ADG, and WG where dam with calmer temperament had increased calf 205-d WW, ADG, and WG.
Ancestral Breed Grouping for Improving Animal Modeling in Admixed Populations and Its Use in Leptin (Genetic and Hormone) Association Studies with Performance Traits in Commercial Beef Cow Herd
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Bhowmik, Nayan
The first study investigated American Aberdeen (AD) cattle's genetic structure and its genetic relationships with five American taurine beef breeds and the genetic population structure of a related admixed cattle herd for improved statistical modeling. The last two studies investigated the role of leptin (LEP) c.73C>T polymorphism, leptin diplotype (LEPD), and leptin hormone (LEPH) concentration on reproductive, growth, size, feeding, and carcass ultrasound traits in beef cows and heifers. High levels of polymorphism were observed in admixed, Red Angus, and Gelbvieh (GV) populations. The lowest level of polymorphism was found in AD followed by undetermined parentage. Pairwise fixation index displayed the largest genetic differentiation between AD and GV, Simmental, and Shorthorn breeds. Even though founder animals originated from the Angus breed, the AD breed exhibited unique genomic characteristics. Mixed animal models with or without pedigree that included the primary ancestral breed group (ABG) for admixed individuals developed from diversity analyses performed better than models without the ABG. With these improved models, novel relationships between LEP genotype and number of follicles and ovary size were identified. Similar relationships of the LEP genotype in multiple growth and weight traits that have been published before have been confirmed. However, reverse relationships were observed for feed efficiency. The LEPD showed associations for feed efficiency, weight traits, and body size traits. Novel relationships between LEPH categories (high vs. low) were reported on two feeding behavior traits, including number of meals per day and feed intake per meal. However, no relationship was observed between LEP genotype and plasma LEPH concentration in this population. Literature indicates the increased productivity of the T allele for growth and carcass attributes, so it was expected that the same increased productivity would be found for reproductive traits. Therefore, the T allele of LEP c.73C>T marker could be used as a valuable marker for selecting for improved growth, body size, and reproductive performance in commercial beef heifers. Also, circulatory LEPH before the breeding season may serve as a predictor for feeding behavior, body size, and reproductive traits. Even so, not all comparisons could be statistically proven; therefore, additional investigations may be warranted.
An Evaluation of Feeding Hempseed Cake in Finishing Cattle Diets
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Winders, Thomas
Understanding the potential of hempseed cake to be used as a livestock feedstuff is important for both industrial hemp and beef producers. Experiment 1 evaluated the effects of hempseed cake (HEMP) on growth performance, feeding behavior, plasma metabolite concentrations across time, and carcass characteristics when fed in finishing diets to heifers in comparison to dried corn distillers grains plus solubles (DDGS). Experiment 2 investigated the effects of HEMP on diet ruminal fermentation parameters, total tract digestibility, nutrient flow, and nitrogen balance in finishing steers in comparison to DDGS and a control (CON) diet containing no byproduct. Experiment 3 explored the effects of hempseed cake on immune parameters in response to an endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) challenge in finishing steers in comparison to DDGS and CON. In experiment 1, the HEMP diet reduced heifer growth performance and hot carcass weight while not influencing dry matter intake, feeding behavior, or other carcass characteristics. Plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) was greater for heifers fed the HEMP diet, and glucose and total amino acid concentrations were not influence by treatment. In experiment 2, ruminal ammonia and total VFA concentrations were greatest for steers fed the HEMP diet. Furthermore, organic matter (OM) intake tended to be greater, OM total tract apparent digestibility was reduced, and N digestibility was greatest for steers fed the HEMP diet, and site of digestion was influenced by treatment. Nitrogen retention was greatest in steers fed the HEMP diet, suggesting treatment influence on N metabolism. In experiment 3, there was a treatment by hour interaction for PUN, and plasma glucose and NEFA were not influenced by treatment. Plasma IL-1α, IL-36RA, and TNF-α were lowest in steers fed the HEMP diet, and all other cytokines and total amino acid plasma concentrations were not influenced by treatment. Hempseed cake negatively influences growth performance in large part because of reduced total tract apparent OM digestibility, while N total tract apparent digestibility and N retention are improved and immune response is influenced, so further understanding of these outcomes is needed to explore implications of feeding hempseed cake to finishing cattle.
Understanding Consumer Acceptance of Multiple Red Meat Products and Perceptions of the American Meat Science Association’s Intercollegiate Meat Judging Program Benefits From Participants
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Fevold, Michaella
Per capita consumption of red meat products totaled 67 kg in 2017. Given the popularity of meat, it is important for meat scientists to monitor consumers acceptance of red meat products. Consumer acceptance of red meat products is driven by meat quality characteristics such as tenderness. The objectives of the second and third chapter was to investigate the influence of beef ribeye steak weight and thickness on purchasing behaviors of consumers and to better understand the effects of frozen storage on protein degradation, lipid oxidation, meat quality, and sensory characteristics of lamb. As beef carcasses have grown over the time an unexpected consequence arose, an increase in ribeye size. Researchers have been studying these effects for several years to understand the influence on increasing ribeye size in relation to consumer acceptance of beef steaks. Our results indicate beef consumers are varied in their preference of beef ribeye steak size. However, beef consumers do discriminate against thin cut steaks regardless of steak size. These results indicate the beef industry is providing enough variation in steak types to meet consumer demands. The lamb industry experiences lulls and surplus of fresh lamb due to breeding seasons of sheep, creating supply chain issues. Use of frozen lamb could alleviate some of these issues, however consumers discriminate against frozen lamb in the retail space. Our research indicates consumers discriminate against frozen loin chops due to tenderness and juiciness issues. However, consumers did not discriminate against frozen leg chops. Furthermore, we affirmed previous research which indicated the importance of allows lamb several days to age postmortem before freezing to improve protein degradation. An important part of the meat industry is the AMSA intercollegiate meat judging program. This program allows for students to learn how to evaluate meat products and introduces students to the meat industry. Our objective of this study was to better understand the influence of the meat judging program on participants. Our results indicate judging programs provide participants with benefits such as skills development and introduction to the meat industry. Area of improvement included more community building and more applicability to the meat industry.
Supplemental Leucine in Milk Replacer Fed to Neonatal Calves and Lambs: Effects on Growth, Development, and Metabolism
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Reiners, Jessica Nora
Maximizing growth during the neonatal period in preruminants can enhance long-term growth and productivity, increasing producer profits and input efficiency. Meeting the requirements for growth can be achieved through feeding singular amino acids, specifically leucine, to enhance protein synthesis in muscle tissues. In order to evaluate the impact of supplemental leucine in milk replacer fed to neonatal preruminants, three experiments were designed. Experiment 1 examined short-term effects of supplemental leucine administration on calf and organ growth, nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention, serum amino acid and metabolite profiles, and regulators of protein synthesis. Experiment 2 determined long-term effects of supplemental leucine administration during the pre-weaning phase on pre- and post-weaning lamb growth, pre-weaning serum amino acid and metabolite profiles, feedlot performance, and carcass characteristics. Experiment 3 evaluated effects of supplemental leucine on the pancreatic enzymes α-amylase and trypsin, and the small intestinal carbohydrases maltase, isomaltase, glucoamylase, and lactase using tissue samples from experiments 1 and 2. Overall, supplemental leucine was able to affect animal productivity in the short- and long-term in a species-specific manner. In experiment 1, calf growth was unaffected by treatment; however, select tissue masses were affected by supplementation. Digestibility of milk replacer and nitrogen retention were also unaffected. Supplemental leucine was able to alter serum amino acid and metabolite profiles, but did not alter the activity of proteins involved in protein synthesis. In experiment 2, supplemental leucine increased pre-weaning lamb growth and average daily gain, but did not alter animal performance in the feedlot. Organ masses were unaffected, and lambs receiving supplemental leucine carried more fat in the carcass. In experiment 3, supplemental leucine had no effect on pancreatic enzyme activity, but had both a short- and long-term effect on small intestinal carbohydrase activities in both species, diminishing the activity of maltase and isomaltase in the jejunum. In calves, leucine also decreased lactase activity in the jejunum. These results suggest that leucine supplementation to milk replacer may affect short-term growth and development of neonatal preruminants, and does have a short- and long-term effects on intestinal carbohydrase activities, and future research should evaluate its effects on carbohydrate digestibility.
Understanding the Relationship Between Weather Variables, Dry Matter Intake, and Average Daily Gain of Beef Cattle
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Yusuf, Mustapha
The current National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (NASEM) dry matter intake (DMI) prediction models are inadequate for DMI prediction of beef cattle in the Northern Great Plains. Four studies were conducted to account for additional variation in DMI and average daily gain (ADG) caused by weather variables. Experiment 1 and 2 had 13,895 steer-weeks observations, experiment 3 had 13,739 steer-weeks observations, and experiment 4 had 2,161 cow-weeks observations, respectively. Experiment 1 examined the influence of ambient temperature and solar radiation on DMI of beef steers. In experiment 2, 3, and 4, we examined the influence of ambient temperature, range of temperature, dew point, solar radiation, wind speed and their lags (two-week lag and monthly lag) on DMI of beef steers, ADG of beef steers, and DMI of beef cows, respectively. After adjusting for week of the year, linear and quadratic relationships of predictor variables on response variables were evaluated. In experiment 1 and 2, body weight (BW) had both linear and quadratic relationship with DMI of steers. In experiment 3 and 4, BW had a linear relationship with ADG of steers and DMI of cows, respectively. Week of the year, BW, and dietary energy density (NEm) were accounted for in the base model in experiment 1, 2 and 4 while in experiment 3, DMI was also accounted for. For the models, stepwise regression procedure was utilized. In experiment 1, ambient temperature and solar radiation interacted (P = 0.0001) and accounted for additional variation in DMI of beef steers. In experiment 2, weather variables and their interactions (P = 0.0001) accounted for additional variation in DMI of beef steers. In experiment 3, weather variables (P = 0.0001) accounted for additional variation in ADG of beef steers. In experiment 4, wind speed interacted (P <0.001) with ambient temperature and range of temperature which all accounted for additional variation in DMI of beef cows. These studies show that weather variables interact and cause variation in DMI and ADG in beef cattle. This has helped in better understanding the relationship between weather variables with DMI and ADG. This will improve the accuracy of DMI and ADG prediction equations and help beef cattle producers in managing their feed resources more efficiently.
Maternal Nutrition, One-Carbon Metabolites, and Programming of Fetal Development During Early Gestation
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Crouse, Matthew Scott Pennell
Crossbred Angus heifers (n = 14) were bred via AI, assigned to nutritional treatment (CON = 100% of requirements for 0.45 kg/d gain and RES = 60% of CON) and ovariohysterectomized on d 50 of gestation. Fetal liver, muscle from the hind limb, and cerebrum were analyzed by RNA-sequencing, and a total of 548, 317, and 151 genes, respectively (P < 0.01) were differentially expressed. Functional categories affected by nutritional treatment included: 1) Liver: metabolic pathways and nucleosome core, 2) Muscle: skeletal muscle and embryogenesis, and 3) Cerebrum: hippocampus and neurogenesis. Bovine embryonic fibroblast cells were cultured in Eagle’s Minimum Essential Medium with 1 g/L glucose (LOW) or 4.5 g/L glucose (HIGH). Control medium contained basal concentrations of one-carbon metabolites (Choline, folate, vitamin B12, and methionine). One-carbon metabolites (OCM: methionine, choline, folate, vitamin B12) were supplemented to the media at 2.5, 5, and 10 times (2.5X, 5X, and 10X, respectively) the control media, except for methionine, which was limited to 2X. One-carbon metabolites increased (P < 0.01) basal respiration and Reserve Capacity in HIGH 2.5X and 10X compared with all other treatments. ATP-linked respiration was greater (P < 0.01) in HIGH OCM supplemented cells compared to Control and was greater in LOW 2.5X compared with LOW Control, 5X, and 10X cells. Total growth rate was greater (P < 0.01) for HIGH 2.5X and 10X compared with LOW Control, 2.5X, and 10X. At 24, 36, 48, and 72 h, cell proliferation in HIGH 10X was always greater (P ≤ 0.03) than Low 10X. Therefore, these data are interpreted to imply that a moderate maternal nutrient restriction during the first 50 d of gestation in beef heifers alters the transcript abundance of genes impacting tissue accretion, function, and metabolism suggesting potential alterations to fetal physiology which should be further investigated. Lastly, supplementation of OCM may improve fetal growth and program increased metabolic efficiency in the offspring, and thus should be a focus of future research into the effects of maternal nutrition on postnatal physiology.
Effects of Nutrient Restriction, Realimentation, and Twinning on Plasma Volume, Umbilical Hemodynamics and Placental Characteristics in the Pregnant Adolescent Ewe
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Vasquez Hidalgo, Manuel Alexander
Reproductive physiology in production animals is a key economic component of longevity and profitability of animal farming. There are several components that can benefit or compromise adequate pregnancy periods. Sheep production is not only a very important economic activity for farmers around the United States, but sheep are also an important medical and surgical model to study human diseases. Our findings suggest that estradiol-17 beta could be involved in acute increased plasma volume early in gestation which can benefit overall gestation. We report that umbilical blood flow decreases upon nutrient restriction in adolescent ewes and does not recover upon realimentation. Finally, we suggest that a similar umbilical blood flow, placental development and plasma volume expansion in twins and singleton pregnancies could be enough to obtain similar birthweights in singletons and twins.
Energy and Mineral Supplementation Strategies for Beef Cattle Grazing the Northern Great Plains
(North Dakota State University, 2019) McCarthy, Kacie Lynn
Four experiments were conducted to evaluate different technologies and supplementation strategies that may impact beef cattle production in the Northern Great Plains. Our overarching hypothesis was that we can enhance beef cattle performance and production through strategic supplementation of energy and minerals. In experiment 1, steers were fitted with transmission beacons on collars to determine effects of preweaning creep feeder attendance influences on post-weaning performance, feeding behavior, and carcass characteristics. Calves that visited creep feeders more frequently spent more time eating and ate more meals during the first 28 d of the finishing period. In experiment 2, we utilized electronic feeders to monitor mineral intake of cow-calf pairs and found that HIGH (>90 g/d; average 125.4 g/d) intake cows and calves spent more time at the mineral feeder than their LOW (<90 g/d; average 33.5 g/d) intake counterparts. Furthermore, we noted greater concentrations of Se, Cu, and Co in livers of HIGH intake cows compared to LOW intake cows. In experiment 3, we evaluated a slow-release vitamin and mineral bolus in feedlot heifers which failed to influence heifer performance, liver mineral concentrations or carcass characteristics. Overall, heifers performed as expected while on a finishing diet from feeds sourced in the Northern Great Plains. In experiment 4, we further utilized the SmartFeed system to control intake of individual heifers assigned to different treatments in a group pasture scenario. Our results clearly show that the feed controlling portion can be used for precision feeding of individuals in extensive group managed scenarios. Though heifers had similar BW and ADG among treatment groups, treatments that provided supplemental mineral enhanced liver concentrations of Se, Fe, Cu, and Co. Furthermore, the CowManager system was able to detect divergence in highly active behavior among treatment groups, but also reported many false health and estrus-related alerts. Overall, we were able to successfully monitor individual mineral intakes in cow-calf pairs and report differences in energy and mineral supplement intakes in heifers grazing native range. We were also able to corroborate differences in supplement intakes with changes in concentrations of mineral in the liver of animals.
Factors Affecting Testicular Growth and Development in the Beef Bull
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Negrin-Pereira, Nicolás
At present no single parameter can predict potential daily sperm production (DSP) in bulls. Sertoli cells (SC) are responsible for nourishing and providing physical support to germ cells (GC) throughout spermatogenesis. The size of the SC population established before puberty is one of the major factors determining DSP in the bull. Fine needle aspiration (FNA) is a technique used for diagnostic purposes in many species but its application to determine the size of the SC population remains unexplored. Our objectives were to compare two stains (immunohistochemistry vs. conventional HE) and three techniques to determine SC density in neonatal and prepubertal bulls [22G FNA (SMEAR), 14G needle with vacuum (CORE) and tissue section (HIS)], and the effects of three different interventions on testicular growth, development and cytology in neonates, pre and peripubertal bulls: corn supplementation during mid to late gestation of dams, the age of the dam and the administration of vitamin A. The significant correlation observed between GC and SC counts in neonatal and prepubertal bulls, highlighted the relationship between both cell populations established in the early gonad. Although no significant correlation existed between techniques for SC density, the significant relationship established between SC counts and GATA4+ cell density implies the process can be automated. Corn supplementation to multiparous dams during mid to late gestation did not have any effect on testicular gross parameters and cytology in neonatal bulls coincident with the lack of differences in fetal growth between treatments. No significant differences in scrotal circumference, testicular weight or cytology existed between prepubertal bulls from primiparous heifers or adult multiparous cows. Nevertheless, bulls from heifers had lower bodyweights at 194 days of age compared with bulls from cows. The administration of vitamin A to peripubertal bulls had no effect on scrotal circumference, testicular weight or cytology. Nevertheless, epididymis in treated bulls were significantly heavier than non-treated animals. The data generated in the present experiments highlights the need for more research to generate new interventions aiming to influence the size of the SC population in the testis and the potential daily sperm production in the beef bull.
Effects of Replacing Supplemental Sucrose with Beef During Mid to Late Gestation on Maternal Health and Fetal Growth and Development Using a Sow Biomedical Model
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Nelson, Megan Alice
Americans consume three percent more total daily calories from sugar than current recommendations. Maternal diets high in sugar can cause obesity and diabetes mellitus. Objectives were to compare supplemental dietary sucrose to a protein alternative on maternal health and fetal programming utilizing a sow biomedical model. Pregnant sows (Landrace × Yorkshire, average BW = 222 ± 35 kg, n = 21) were fed a corn-soybean meal-based diet (CSM) at one percent BW at 0700 h daily from d 29 (± 1.47) to 111 (± 0.58) of gestation. Sows were randomly assigned to dietary supplement treatments: 126 g CSM (CON, n = 5), 110 g cooked ground beef (BEEF, n = 6), 85.5 g sucrose (SUCR, n = 5), or the combination of 54.8 g BEEF and 42.7 g SUCR (B+S, n = 5). Dietary supplements were fed three times daily from d 40 to 110 (± 0.58) of gestation. A repeated measures design was modeled using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Dietary treatment did not influence gestational BW (P ≥ 0.99), subcutaneous fat depth (P ≥ 0.09), blood chemistry panel (P ≥ 0.21), or total-, HDL-, or LDL-cholesterol, triglyceride, insulin, or C-reactive protein serum concentrations (P ≥ 0.07). Dietary treatment did not influence sow organ or lean tissue weight (P ≥ 0.42). Compared to CON, BEEF fetuses had increased BW (P = 0.01), crown to rump length (P = 0.01), nose to crown length (P < 0.01), heart girth (P = 0.02), and abdominal girth (P = 0.05). Dietary treatment did not influence fetal growth characteristics of median weight male and female fetuses (P ≥ 0.23). Compared to BEEF, SUCR fetuses had heavier liver weights (P = 0.04). Dietary treatment by sex interaction occurred for fetal kidney weight with BEEF males having heavier kidney weights compared BEEF females (P = 0.03). Dietary treatment did not influence other fetal organ or lean tissue weights (P ≥ 0.09). These results suggest beef or sucrose supplementation at 1.49 or 1.16 grams per kilogram BW per day, respectively, from day 40 to 110 of gestation had minimal impact on maternal health and fetal development.
Understanding the Equine Distal Limb
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Gunkelman, Mattia
Studies examining health of the distal limb and lameness conditions are important for education and future research. It is hypothesized that changes to the external hoof would result in alterations to blood flow throughout the distal limb and changes to digital cushion thickness. To investigate these things, the following experiments (exp) were conducted. Exp 1: MRI images of the equine distal limb. All images had identified abnormalities to internal structures, and a lameness score assigned. Digital cushion thickness was measured, however no relationship of thickness and lameness was observed (P≥0.12). Exp 2: Trimming and shoeing is a routine procedure for maintenance of proper hoof health; therefore two exp at separate locations (NDSU and UMC) were conducted to examine digital cushion thickness, carpal joint circumference, and blood flow during this time. Specifically, measurements were obtained 24h post trimming and shoeing and periodically throughout an 8 wk period. No significant differences were identified in carpal joint circumference or digital cushion thickness at either location. Thermographic images identified changes in hoof temperature in bare and shod horses at both locations. Week by treatment interaction was significant at NDSU (P=0.04), with hoof temperature decreased in both treatment groups one week post trimming and shoeing. Shod horses remained below baseline throughout the 8 week period, and were significantly colder (P=0.02) than bare at 8 wk. Week by treatment interaction was also significant at UMC (P<0.0001), with decreased hoof temperature in both treatment groups 4 wks post trimming and shoeing, followed by shod horses increasing to baseline at 8 wk while bare remained colder. Exp 3: Transformative learning in undergraduate students. Undergraduate students enrolled in an Equine Science research course conducted four individual studies. Transformative learning was assessed throughout the course through reflection questions and discussions. It was determined that transformative learning was achieved, however it was dependent on the particular student and their previous experience and knowledge. Overall, the current experiments provide further understanding of the distal limb. Further research should continue to place focus on those structures and mechanisms within the hoof which play an overall role in its proper function.
Perceptions of Modern Meat-Animal Production from Consumers Two to Three Generations Removed from the Farm
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Reed, DeMetris Deon, Jr.
A consumer is defined as a person who purchases goods and services for personal use or a person or thing that eats or uses something (Merriam-Webster, 2019). Consumers either want or need to eat meat, whether it is for self-gratification or nutritive purposes. The modern consumer definition of “meat” has changed from the original hunter stalking prey to now contemporary livestock production practices that confine and feed sophisticated diets in an effort to achieve outstanding muscle-food quality. Those who produce and supply consumers with food and fiber must achieve a higher level of education in keeping with technological advances. Further, there is a change in the demographics of modern farmers/ranchers, with more women entering the field (Lucier, 2019). Younger generations are technologically savvy and seek “finger-tip” evaluation access of the meat they are considering for purchase. These consumers demand instant access to industry trends in order to keep current with the next meat branding idea (ex. Guaranteed Tender and Flavorful Beef). Consumers are no longer waiting for the producer and product to come to them, they are seeking out local and reliable agricultural products suppliers in their hometown. This “buy local” idea is pushing a food trend in restaurants and food service to provide menu options consisting of locally grown and prepared items (Mealey, 2019). Innovative development of technology that provides instant access to information regarding the places that offer these food products as well as information regarding the product quality is giving consumers purchasing power. The following research will examine the aspects of consumer perception of meat production relative to modern consumers that are two to three generations removed for the farm.
The Effects of Red Meat or Sugar Supplementation during Gestation and Lactation on Maternal Reproduction, Maternal and Offspring Blood Parameters, and Offspring Body Composition
(North Dakota State University, 2019) Siomka, Alexis Michelle
Using swine as a model for humans, this study was conducted to examine whether maternal consumption of added protein (red meat) or free sugar (glucose) throughout gestation and lactation was associated with maternal reproduction, maternal and offspring blood parameters, and offspring mature body composition. Maternal breed of sows of at least one year of age at breeding were utilized. At D-40 of gestation, sows were randomly assigned to one of four dietary supplementation treatments 1) Control (CON): corn-soy gestation diet; 2) Beef (GB): 4 oz cooked beef patty; 3) Sugar (SUG): sugar on a caloric equivalent to the beef patty; 4) Half sugar and half beef (SB): a supplementation of a beef and sugar mixture. Fewest piglets farrowed per litter was seen in the CON sows when compared to GB, SUG or SB treatments (P<0.04), with no difference in total number farrowed between GB, SUG, and SB sows (P>0.6). Although GB sows had piglets with a lower average birth weight than CON sows (P=0.02) and no difference in average piglet growth during lactation (P=0.17) or in weaning weight (P=0.08). There were no (P>0.05) differences in traits measured in the sow (subcutaneous backfat depth, body weight, and energy balance). No treatment effect was seen in low-density lipoprotein (LDLch) (P=0.31); however, serum LDLch continued to decrease for SUG sows from early to late gestation. There were differences for high-density-lipoproteins (HDLch) with GB sows having the greatest HDLch levels when compared to CON and SUG during mid gestation (P=0.05 and 0.004, respectively). There were treatment differences seen during mid- and late gestation with GB sows having higher total cholesterol (TOTch) than SUG and CON sows (P<0.05). During mid gestation, TOTch was higher for GB than SB (P=0.006), resulting in lower TOTch for SB during late gestation (P=0.08). It can be concluded that the supplement provided during gestation and lactation, had a minimal effect on overall maternal reproduction, maternal and offspring blood parameters, and on mature body composition of offspring. Positive outcomes for offspring and mothers cannot be expected if the supplementation is not needed.
The Effects of Maternal Diet on Passive Transfer of Immunity to the Neonatal Beef Calf, and Calf Immune Response to Vaccination and Immunostimulants
(North Dakota State University, 2018) Gaspers, James Joseph
To investigate the effects of maternal diet on passive transfer of immunity to the neonatal beef calf, and calf immune response to vaccination and immunostimulants, three experiments (Exp.) were completed. Results from Exp. 1 indicated that there was no effect of supplemental starch to cows on colostrum production, offspring birth weight, incidence of dystocia, respiratory acidosis, and the passive transfer of immunity. Results from Exp. 2 indicated that both the needle – free injection devices (NFs) and needle and syringe (NS) initiate a haptoglobin (Hp) inflammatory response (P < 0.001). After injection bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) type 2 antibody titers continually declined from d 0, 7, 28, and 115 across both NS and NF treatment groups (P < 0.001). After secondary booster vaccination on d 115, BVDV type 2 antibody titers significantly increased by d 143 (P < 0.001). The use of NFs will maintain a level of immunity that has been seen by the use of conventional NS vaccine administration methods. In Exp. 3, treatments containing a modified live vaccine (MLV) antigen initiated an Hp inflammatory response over time (P < 0.001). Interferon gamma was not significantly different across treatment over time (P = 0.39); however, there was a threefold increase in treatment three over time. Treatments containing a MLV BVDV antigen maintained BVDV type 2 antibodies over time (P <0.001). Feed intake and feeding behavior were unaffected by the use of the vaccine and/or immunostimulant.
The Impact of Digestive Enzymes in the Ruminant Animal
(North Dakota State University, 2016) Keomanivong, Faithe Elizabeth
Understanding the enzymatic activity in ruminant digestive systems is essential for securing adequate growth, reproduction and overall metabolism. In order to evaluate the impact of various nutritional sources and dietary strategies on enzymatic activity, five experiments were designed. Experiment 1 examined the influence of nutrient restriction and melatonin supplementation on maternal and fetal pancreatic development. Experiment 2 explored various phases of the reproductive cycle and the impact of intravenous arginine infusion amid differing levels of feed intake. Experiment 3 determined the effectiveness of realimentation during advancing stages of gestation. Experiments 4 and 5 examined the impact of variable rations on ruminal pH, NH3, VFA, total gas and methane concentration and enzymatic activity in steers consuming rations of fine- vs coarse-rolled corn and 20% vs 40% DDGS (Experiment 4) and corn vs barley based diets with low- vs moderate-oil DDGS (Experiment 5). Overall, nutrient restriction caused reduced BW, pancreatic mass and pancreatic enzyme activity in mature animals. In Experiment 1, the addition of dietary melatonin diminished the impact of nutrient restriction on maternal pancreatic mass and α-amylase activity while reducing the secretion of insulin and size of insulin-containing cell clusters. Fetal pancreatic enzymes were unaffected by treatment, however, pancreatic morphology exhibited greater insulin-containing cell cluster size in fetuses from adequately fed dams. In Experiment 2, arginine infusion did not alter pancreatic exocrine or endocrine function during the various luteal stage phases. In Experiment 3, realimentation during different stages of gestation decreased the impact of reduced feed intake and, in some cases, allowed for compensatory gain of the exocrine pancreas. The maternal and fetal endocrine pancreas was unaffected. Mature animals had greater changes in pancreatic exocrine secretions whereas fetuses differed mainly in endocrine function as a result of improper nutritional status. Comparison of pancreatic tissue revealed a greater quantity, and larger size, of insulin-containing cell clusters in fetuses which appear to separate as the animal matures. Differences in rumen enzymatic activity was found in Experiments 4 and 5, however, despite changes in lag time of gas production or ruminal degradation rates, the concentration of greenhouse gases (CH4 or CO2) produced were unaffected.
Maternal Nutritional Plane and Endogenous Retroviral Gene Elements, Pregnancy Hormones, and Placental Vascularity and Angiogenic Factors during the Establishment of Pregnancy in Beef Cattle
(North Dakota State University, 2016) McLean, Kyle James
In order to meet the projected food demands by 2050, animal agriculture must increase production of animal products on the same or decreased land area through increased efficiency. Early gestation is one area to increase efficiency in beef production in a twofold manner 1) by increasing the number of calves born due to decreased early embryonic loss and 2) by minimizing detrimental effects due to fetal programming which may decrease offspring growth or reproductive efficiency. Both of which will result in more pounds of beef produced by the same number of cows. Recently, endogenous retroviral elements (ERV), which make up a significant portion of mammalian genomes, have been implicated in vital steps during placentation. The placenta is the source of nutrient, gas, and waste exchange between maternal and fetal circulation which is necessary to support fetal growth. Maternal nutrition influences fetal growth and placental development. Therefore, we hypothesized that ERV envelope genes, syncytin-Rum1 and BERV-K1, as well as pregnancy specific hormones, PSP-B, and IFN-τ will be differentially expressed during critical time points of early pregnancy and maternal nutrition restriction will alter mRNA expression at critical time points. We developed a technique to ovariohysterectomized beef heifers which provides a large animal model to acquire uteroplacental tissues. In year 1, we established basal expression patterns for syncytin-Rum1 and BERV-K1, PSP-B, and IFN-τ within utero-placental tissues during the first 50 d of gestation. In year 2, we determined the effects of 40% global nutrient restriction on the mRNA expression of syncytin-Rum1 and BERV-K1, PSP-B, and IFN-τ on d 16, 34, and 50 of gestation in uteroplacental tissues. These data provide novel evidence of differential expression of endogenous retroviruses (syncytin-Rum1 and BERV-K1), PSP-B, and IFN-τ during early gestation but 40% maternal nutrient restriction had little influence of mRNA expression. However, further work needs to be completed to elucidate functions, mechanisms, and interactions of these genes during early gestation and their importance to the successful establishment of pregnancy.
Independent Methods to Improve Meat Quality Including Genetic Technologies, Modified Processing, and Growth Promotants in Beef
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Schwartz, Christina Anne
Three independent studies were done to investigate how genetic factors, carcass management, and exogenous growth promotant programs influence meat quality attributes, palatability, and protein expression in beef. The first study involved Igenity® genetic profiling of myostatin sequence variants C313Y and Q204X of the myostatin gene in Piedmontese-crossbred heifers. Muscle from heifers having 1 or 2 copies of myostatin variants had decreased fat deposition, increased marbling, and minimal influence on quality attributes measured (tenderness and color), indicating a relationship between disruptive myostatin gene alterations and carcass and meat quality traits. Next, to improve the quality of the under-utilized beef round muscle, a modified hot-boning technique was utilized early post mortem to measure effects on meat palatability and myofibrillar protein degradation in deep and superficial portions of the beef semimembranosus (SM). Randomized treatments included deep SM hot-boned (DH) or cold-boned (DC), and superficial SM hot-boned (SH) or cold-boned (SC). Post mortem temperature and pH decline were monitored every 10 min for 24 h, and at 45 min, 3 h, and 24 h, respectively, in superficial and deep portions of the SM muscle. The deep SM had a slower chill rate and a more rapid pH decline when compared with the superficial SM, regardless of hot-boning treatment, which resulted in increased calpain 1 autolysis in deep SM when compared with superficial SM locations. Muscle from both deep SM treatments was less red, however, tenderness was not different among all treatments. Altering proteolytic activity and meat palatability is contingent upon the ability of the modified hot-boning technique to significantly alter temperature and pH decline in the deep portion of the SM. iv Lastly, proteomic technologies (two-dimensional in-gel electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry) were used to identify differentially abundant sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins in the longissimus lumborum (LL) muscle from beef cattle treated with ractopamine hydrochloride with or without anabolic implant treatment during the finishing period. Exogenous growth promoting programs altered the protein profile of beef LL muscle, influencing the abundance of glycolytic enzymes and proteins possessing oxidative resistance, protective, regenerative, recovery, and anti-apoptotic properties that potentially effect meat quality or meat aging.
Effects of Maternal Nutrition During Gestation on Viscera Energy Use in Ruminant Dams and Offspring and Hypothalamic Neurohormone Content in the Offspring
(North Dakota State University, 2015) Prezotto, Ligia Dias
The extensive use of grazing systems for ruminant livestock and the high variation in forage quality throughout the year have important impacts on production. Changes in feed quality and availability cause alteration in the nutritional and physiological status of gestating animals. Modifications of the maternal nutritional environment throughout fetal development can have an impact on later performance of the offspring. Adjustments in maternal metabolism have been correlated with an increase in maternal energy use during pregnancy, and also further adjustments that occur in the dam’s metabolism to provide adequate oxygen (O2), nutrients, and energy for fetal growth and maternal maintenance systems. Moreover, energy utilized by fetal visceral tissues can be altered in response to changes in maternal feed intake. Prolonged changes in maternal feed intake during early pregnancy, the time which fetal brain development is taking place, can result in up- and/or down-regulation of neurohormones which play an important role in controlling long-term energy utilization and feed intake in the offspring. We designed three different studies with the main objective to investigate how maternal nutrient restriction throughout gestation or during different periods of gestation affects visceral organ metabolism in the dam and in the fetus. Furthermore, we aimed to understand the effects of fetal growth restriction on postnatal liver and small intestine mass, energy use, and content of hypothalamic neurohormones that control feed intake and energy metabolism. Our results indicate that, maternal hepatic and jejunal mass and energy use are impacted by nutrient restriction and strategic realimentation during different stages of gestation. Similar responses are also observed in fetal visceral development, metabolism and liver energy use in postnatal life. Moreover, arginine supplementation appears to be a nutritional strategy that diminishes the possible deleterious effects in maternal and fetal visceral metabolism in response to nutrient restriction. iv Finally, maternal nutrient restriction throughout gestation decreased the number of cells expressing proopiomelanocortin (POMC) protein in the offspring hypothalamus, perhaps influencing energy metabolism in the offspring.

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