Health, Nutrition & Exercise Science Masters Theses

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Relationships between electronic handgrip dynamometer derived muscle function and Purdue Pegboard performance
(North Dakota State University, 2024) FitzSimmons, Samantha
Purpose: To examine the relationships of electronic handgrip dynamometer and accelerometer derived maximal handgrip strength (HGS), sub-maximal control, and neuromuscular steadiness on Purdue Pegboard Test (PPT) performance in older adults. Methods: The analytic sample included 30 generally healthy community-dwelling older adults (age 72.4±5.3). Participants squeezed the handgrip dynamometer with maximal effort on each hand to determine strength capacity. A 25% sub-maximal target was calculated from maximal HGS, and participants were asked to maintain this target for 10-seconds for sub-maximal control. The accelerometer, which was placed on top of the handgrip dynamometer, quantified neuromuscular steadiness. Standard protocols were used for PPT. A series of Pearson correlations were used for the analyses. Results: Right HGS was weakly, negatively, and insignificantly correlated with PPT performance (r=-0.20; p=0.28), while left HGS was negligibly correlated with PPT performance (r=0.02; p=0.28). Sub-maximal control showed a downward, but insignificant weak trend with PPT performance on the right (r=-0.22; p=0.09) and left hands (r=-0.30; p=0.09). Further, neuromuscular steadiness was negligibly correlated with PPT performance on the right (r=-0.01; p=0.94) and left hands (r=0.14; p=0.43). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that a signal may exist between sub-maximal control and PPT performance. Sub-maximal control may serve as a screening tool for examining neuromuscular functioning and fine motor skills. Such a tool may help in occupational therapy (OT) testing and appropriate referral to intervention, which in turn, may help our rapidly growing older adult population extend quality of life and independent living.
ASSOCIATIONS OF ANTIOXIDANT CONSUMPTION FROM FOOD AND SUPPLEMENT SOURCES ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN OLDER ADULTS
(North Dakota State University, 2024) Knoll, Kelly
Oxidative stress, the imbalance of prooxidants and antioxidants, has been recognized as a possible risk factor for cognitive impairment. We postulate that increased dietary antioxidant consumption could help preserve cognitive function during aging. Dietary intake and cognitive function of 50 adults aged ≥65-years (66% women; aged 71.5±5.1 years) was assessed using Cronometer, an electronic nutrition analysis application, and the Saint Louis University Mental Status examination. The fisher’s exact test (p < 0.01) identified a significantly lower percentage of cognitive dysfunction (31.6%; 6 of 19 participants) among participants that met the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDAs) for the antioxidants, vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and manganese, and a higher percentage of cognitive dysfunction among those that did not meet the antioxidant RDAs (74.2%; 23 of 31 participants). However, mean cognitive scores differed insignificantly between those meeting RDAs (26.2 ±4.2 points) and those that did not (24.9 ±2.9 points; p = 0.07).
The effects of an acute session of blood flow restriction exercise on autonomic modulation
(North Dakota State University, 2024) Garner, Andrew
PURPOSE: How an acute training session of blood flow restriction (BFR) exercise affects autonomic modulation during a unilateral knee extension exercise. METHODS: Fourteen physically active males completed three different sessions while performing a unilateral knee extension exercise. The dependent variables measured: Heart rate variability (HRV), muscle oxygen saturation (SmO2), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Repeated measures ANOVAs were used to analyze HRV and SmO2 data. A paired t-test was used to analyze RPE data. RESULTS: Significant time-effect differences were found in lnRMSSD, lnHF, and lnLF at baseline to 15 minutes post-exercise and 15 to 30 minutes post-exercise (P < 0.05). Time and group-effect differences were significant in SmO2%, oxygenated, and deoxygenated hemoglobin in the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle in BFR compared to control (P < 0.05). RPE increased when BFR was applied (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Exercise protocol may need to be altered to show autonomic modulation changes.
The Association Among Social Support, Binge Eating, and Binge Drinking in NDSU College Students
(North Dakota State University, 2009) Zaruba, Julie Irene
The purpose of this thesis was to determine the association between bingeing behaviors and social support in college students. Participants were 216 male (57%) and female students, between 18-25 years, who were enrolled in a university required Wellness course. Participants volunteered to complete an online survey. The survey contained questions related to binge eating (BE), binge drinking (BD), social support, and basic demographic data. Groups were constructed based on the participants' gender or age and reported bingeing behaviors (binge eating (BE), binge drinking (BD), binge eating and binge drinking (BE/BD), and no bingeing behavior (NB)). Further, the social support data were broken down into low, moderate, and high categories for S- and N- Scores. S-scores represent the level of perceived social support an individual reports and an N-Score represents the number of individuals in a social network. Paper 1 (Social Support and Bingeing Behaviors in College Students) examined descriptive data on bingeing behaviors and social support to assess if any associations occur between these variables. Paper 1 also assessed the prevalence of bingeing behaviors among college students and identified gender/age differences among individuals who reported bingeing behaviors. Findings from the study indicate no significant associations between bingeing behaviors and social support (S-Score: p=.778 (BE); .362 (BD); .748 (BE/BD); .144 (NB)) (N-Score: p=.853 (BE); .362 (BD); .602 (BE/BD). Findings from the study also indicate no significant correlation between bingeing behaviors and social support (S-Score: r =.006,p=.573 (BE); r =.047,p=.502 (BD); r =.080,p=.246 (BE/BD)) (N- Score: r =.074,p=.284 (BE); r =.006, p=.936 (BD); r =.036, p=.601 (BE/BD)). The prevalence ofbingeing behaviors was similar to the rest of the nation as 40.3% report BE, and 49.5% report BD. Related to age/gender differences males reported higher levels of bingeing behaviors and males reported significantly higher binge drinking severity level l(males = 64.04% vs. females= 35.96 %, p= .008). Reported binge drinking behaviors were divided into three levels. The three severity levels are; level 0= individuals who drink alcohol, yet have not binged in the past 30 days; level 1 =individuals who binge drank only once in the past 30 days; and level 2= individuals who frequently binge drink (2 or more binge drinking episodes in the past 30 days). Differences in binge drinking severity level 0, 1, and 2 also occurred between age category 18-20 and 21-25 (p=.007, .000, .000, respectively). Implications of this dissertation suggest that, within a collegiate population, social support may not have as much of a positive influence as previously thought. Another implication is the significant differences that exist between age, gender, and bingeing behaviors suggest any attempt to modify binge behaviors within a collegiate population should be gender and age specific.
Head Start Parents: Preferred Learning Methods, Nutrition Interests, and the Barriers to Participating in Nutrition Education Classes
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Gregoire, Anne Rachel
Background: Obesity rates in low-income populations continue to rise. Several federal nutrition programs have been established to increase the nutrition knowledge of individuals in these populations and improve their overall health through dietary change. However, there are unique challenges individuals must overcome in order to participate in nutrition education. Ill Objective: The purpose of this research was to identify barriers to participating in nutrition education classes, the preferred learning methods, and nutrition topics of interest of Head Start parents. Design: Surveys were distributed to Head Start parents in the Fargo, North Dakota area during the Head Start fall picnic. Although 67 individuals completed the survey, only 60 surveys met inclusion criteria for the current study. In order to participate in the survey, individuals were required to be 18 years of age, be able to read English, and have a child registered in the local Head Start program. Surveys were analyzed using descriptive data, frequencies, means, and t-tests. A significance level= 0.05 was used. Results: Most of the participants indicated they were Caucasian/white (72.4%). The top identified barriers to attending nutrition programs were childcare, time of day classes are offered, day of week classes are offered, and arranging to come to classes is too difficult. Not knowing about the classes was also a barrier to attending classes. Preferred learning methods included receiving recipes, practicing cooking in a class, and watching videos. Saving money at the grocery store, planning healthy meals, and maintaining a healthy weight were identified as the top valued nutrition topics. Participants who had at least some college education were more interested in computer and online programs compared to respondents who had a high school education or less. Half of the respondents indicated they would be interested in attending a class about nutrition and/or cooking. Compared with participants with no interest in attending nutrition or cooking classes, respondents who indicated an interested in attending classes reported significantly higher barriers for transportation (p=0.003) and not knowing about when the classes were offered (p=0.027). Differences between races were also identified. Compared to Caucasian/white, lack of transportation was significantly higher for other races (p=0.023). Compared to Caucasian/white, learning one-on-one with an instructor was favored by other races (p=0.046). Conclusions: Reducing barriers and increasing interest in nutrition may help improve attendance and may further the effort to combat obesity rates in lowincome populations. Preferred learning methods vary between groups and individuals. Creative ways to reach this population using online, computer programs, or videos may help educators focus their efforts to reach their target audiences with varying needs and preferences.
Evaluation of a Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Strang, Michelle Glee
The goal of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program (FFVP) on participants' fruit and vegetable behavior at school and at home. The evaluation addressed 2 questions: (1) Did the Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program affect students' availability of fruits or vegetable in the home. willingness to try or request fruits or vegetables from a parent, or fruit or vegetable consumption throughout the day? (2) Were any of these factors influenced by student age. ethnicity, family income. or gender? During the 2009-2010 school year, the intervention school distributed a daily fruit or vegetable snack to all students (kindergarten through grade 5) during the school day. Data were collected in the spring of 2010 from 3rd , 4th , and 5th grade students and their parents from two schools, one intervention (n=264) and one control (n=326), using a post-only survey. Data from parent and student surveys revealed no differences between schools; however, significant differences among demographic groups were uncovered. Students' willingness to try new fruits and vegetables was impacted by age, family income, and gender. When testing for the availability of fruits and vegetables in the home, data varied by age and ethnicity, while overall fruit and vegetable consumption scores and willingness to request fruits and vegetables from a parent differed by family income and gender. Findings indicate that the FFVP did not affect students' fruit and vegetable behavior away from school; conversely, student characteristics such as gender and family income did play a role. Future research should investigate if distributing free fruits and vegetables at school as a component of a more comprehensive approach, including supplemental activities such as nutrition education and parental involvement, would increase the positive outcomes of the program.
Effect of Diabetic Retinopathy Education on Knowledge and Planned Lifestyle Activities
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Youd, Lindsay Marie
Prevalence of diabetes is increasing in the United States as well as in North Dakota. Diabetic retinopathy, a complication of diabetes, is seen in 40-45% of Americans diagnosed with diabetes. It is the leading cause of new cases of blindness in adults. Complications of diabetes can be decreased by controlling blood glucose levels. Blood pressure. and blood lipids as well as receiving preventive care in a timely manner. Since diabetic retinopathy may have no symptoms. it is important for healthcare providers as well as those with diabetes to be aware of the disease and how to prevent and treat it. Currently a diet for diabetic retinopathy does not exist. Although there are diet recommendations for controlling blood glucose. blood pressure. and blood lipids. In this study. an educational program about diabetic retinopathy and diet was developed based on current research. The educational program was provided to two groups of participants. Group I (n=20) and Group 2 (n=40). Group I participants were divided into experimental and control (n=7) subgroups. Participants in the experimental group completed a survey prior to and after an educational program. Participants in the control group completed a survey prior to and after reading a brochure on diabetic retinopathy and diet. Group 2 participants were recruited from a required \\ellness class at North Dakota State University and completed a survey prior to and after an educational program. Mean scores on the pre-and post-surveys were compared to evaluate effectiveness of the educational program. Mean pre- and post- survey scores for Group I experimental and control combined were 12.55 and 14.00 and for Group 2. 11.58 and 12. 78. A significant change in scores was seen in both Ciro up I (p 0 .016) and Group 2 (Sig=.000. df 39. t=4.183). No significant difference in mean pre- (p=.978) and post-survey (p=.381) scores was seen between Group 1 experimental and control group. In Group 1 both the educational program and the brochure were effective. and no significant interaction between and within subjects (p=.486) was seen. Participants did not change their stage of change as a result of participating in the diabetic retinopathy program. although all of the participants indicated an intention to make at least one behavioral change. The program including interactive activities. PowerPoint slides. and questionnaires will be used as part of a state-wide educational curriculum targeted towards older adults.
Effectiveness of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Ventilation Devices With Protective Hockey Equipment as Performed by Certified Athletic Trainers
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Konkol, Lauren
Certified Athletic Trainers (ATCs) are expected to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) on athletes experiencing cardiac arrest regardless of the protective equipment worn by the athlete. Additionally, ventilation devices used by ATCs aid in the delivery of ventilations during CPR. The goal of this research was to determine which ventilation device allowed ATCs to deliver adequate ventilations and to establish recommendations for helmet removal method in hockey players requiring CPR. Twenty ATCs completed four scenarios of CPR according to the 2020 AHA guidelines using a PocketMask (PM) or FaceShield (FS) to deliver ventilations and accessing the airway by removing only the facemask or the entire helmet. Overall, the PM resulted in higher quality ventilations compared to the FS and complete removal of the helmet was superior compared to removing the only facemask. For hockey athletes requiring CPR, ATCs should remove the helmet completely and use a PM for ventilation delivery.
Evaluation of the Relationship Between Scapular Dyskinesis and Acromiohumeral Distance
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Ives, Ariel
This study analyzed the interaction between scapular dyskinesis (SDK) and acromiohumeral distance (AHD). Diagnostic ultrasound (DUS) was used to measure the AHD of 33 participants between 10 and 120o of weighted arm elevation in the scapular and frontal planes. Images were collected every 10o as the participant raised and held the weight at each increment. This process was completed bilaterally prior to completion of the Scapular Dyskinesis Test (SDT) to diagnose the presence of SDK. Intra-rater reliability was assessed with ICC (3,1) and four multilinear regressions were used to evaluate the relationship between AHD and SDK. Results indicated nearly perfect inter-rater reliability and a significant, positive relationship between AHD and SDK of the non-dominant arm in the scapular and frontal plane of movement.
The Effects of Humeral Retroversion on Range of Motion in the Throwing Athlete
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Hoskins, Thomas
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between shoulder rotational range of motion once accounting for humeral retroversion (HR) and the Functional Arm Scale for Throwers (FAST). The following research questions guided the study: Is there a correlation between shoulder rotational range of motion (ROM) after HR is accounted for, and the total FAST pitcher’s subscale score? What specific questions on the FAST pitcher’s subscale can help sports medicine professionals predict the chance of rotational deficiencies in the throwing shoulder? Are pitchers with more years of college baseball more likely to see changes in total rotational ROM than pitchers with less years of college baseball? No relationship was found between rotational ROM and the FAST score or rotational ROM and total number of years playing college baseball. The findings suggest further research that needs to be performed on patient reported outcomes specific to changes in rotational ROM.
An Analysis of CPR Performance, Self-Efficacy, and Deliberate Feedback
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Martinez, Caroline
During sudden cardiac arrest (SCA), prompt initiation of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) by a healthcare provider or layperson is critical to a patient’s odds of survival.4 The absence of health care providers in athletic settings often leaves coaches as the primary responder in competitive or recreational athletics. The goal of this study was to determine if coaches could provide high-quality CPR. Twenty coaches completed confidence and deliberate feedback questionnaires before and after two sessions of 5 minute compression-only CPR. Data were analyzed to compare confidence pre and post CPR assessment, as well as to determine the relationship between CPR performance, self-efficacy, and deliberate feedback. After receiving feedback on the initial five minutes of compression-only CPR as well as completion of a one-minute bout of CPR with deliberate feedback, a strong, positive relationship between self-efficacy and quality of CPR performance was observed.
Athletic Trainers' Ability to Establish Peripheral Intravenous Access
(North Dakota State University, 2022) McCormack, Elizabeth
Certified athletic trainers (AT) are usually the first to respond to an athletic emergency heat illness (EHI) and are expected to provide prehospital care. The goal of this study was to investigate the percentage of athletic trainers who could successfully place an intravenous (IV) line and retain the skill for 30 days. Fifteen ATs received an educational training on how to place an IV from a nationally registered paramedic (NR-P) Those ATs who were successful in administering an IV were asked to report 30 days later for follow-up. Data were analyzed to compare IV placement success rates, confidence levels before and after each attempt, and ATs perceived value in the newly learned skill. The concept of ATs’ success in IV placement will need additional study to help develop athletic training educational curricula and modify any prehospital care standards if necessary.
Led Astray: How Command Influence Contributed to the Atrocities of the US-Dakota War of 1862-1865
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Morris, Jacob
During the US-Dakota War of 1862-1865, fighting and bloodshed targeted unarmed non-combatants on both sides. American memory has often fixated only on actions committed by Dakota peoples, Oceti Sakowin, that were deemed depraved. However, sane and level-headed US soldiers also killed and mutilated wounded warriors, as well as fired on women and children. The key elements that made disciplined American soldiers in the US-Dakota War commit atrocities against fallen enemies and noncombatants were the illegal and immoral actions passively permitted, acquiesced through slight penalties, and outright ordered by ranking army commanders prior to and during the campaigns. Commanders were able to influence their troops to behave differently than they did on Confederate battlefields, specifically by expanding the list of acceptable targets and actions their morality could and would accept.
An Analysis of Kinesio® Tape on Mitigation of Dynamic Knee Valgum
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Smedley, Katelynn
Kinesio® Tape has potential to be an intervention to mitigate dynamic knee valgum. This research project investigated the effect of Kinesio® Tape has on dynamic knee valgum through three-dimensional (3D) motion analysis in females with a history or current participation in competitive basketball or volleyball. Thirty volunteers preformed a Y-Balance test and drop jump landing (DJL) test with three different taping conditions. No tape, Kinesio® Performance Plus Tape for the facilitative gluteus medius application, and Kinesio® Tex Classic Tape for the spiral technique (ST). Results observed a statistically significant decrease in knee abduction valgum angle during 100 ms after initial contact on a DJL with application of the Kinesio® spiral technique. No significant results were observed between all three conditions during Y-Balance testing. Based off these findings we can conclude that applying the Kinesio® spiral technique mitigates dynamic knee valgum, therefore possibly decreasing the risk for ACL injury in females.
The Effects of Kinesiotape Star Technique in Individuals with Chronic Non-Specific Low Back Pain
(North Dakota State University, 2022) Langer, Mickaella
Kinesio® Tape is theorized to reduce pain and aid with movement during treatment of chronic non-specific low back pain. This study investigated the effect that Kinesio® Tape has on patient-reported outcome measures and on disability in patients with chronic non-specific low back pain. Six volunteers exhibiting chronic non-specific low back pain, based on an included questionnaire, were recruited for this study. Patient-reported visual analog scores (VAS), Oswestry Disability (ODI) scores, Tampa Scale of Kinesiophobia (TSK) scores and postural stability measured by the Biodex balance system, as well as timed up and go scores were recorded over two randomized sessions with Kinesio® Tape star technique and with a sham taping. Upon conclusion of this study there was significance found when looking at the pain, timed up and go, and ODI scores but there were not any differences found between the two different Kinesio® Tape taping techniques.
Concussion Awareness & Recognition: Youth Sport Parent's Perceptions
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Lindback, Marissa Jae
Youth sport concussion has recently become a topic of concern for health care professionals. Young athletes are at greater risk of sustaining a concussion because children have a greater head-to-body ratio and their cervical musculature and cranial bones are not fully developed. Access to on-site medical professionals is limited for young athletes, leaving recognition and management of the injury to the parents. Limited research has examined parental knowledge of concussion. The purpose of this study was to examine youth sport parents' knowledge regarding the recognition, assessment, and management of concussion. A cross-sectional descriptive design utilizing a SurveyMonkey™ questionnaire was emailed to all parents associated with two gymnastics organizations in the Fargo-Moorhead metro area. Included in the survey were outcome measures that included knowledge of concussion etiology, the ability to recognize concussive symptoms, and knowledge of concussion management. Eighty-nine parents of youth sports athletes participated in this study, a 25 percent response rate. A novel survey instrument was developed to assess parental concussion knowledge. Internal reliability of the instrument was established prior to the study with a pilot group (Cronbach's alpha= 0.67). Data analysis included information regarding frequency and percentages of overall results and demographic data. Overall, participants in this study had moderate knowledge of concussion recognition, diagnosis, and management. Participants with and without prior medical training differed significantly in their knowledge of concussion etiology (P= 0.0016). There was no significant difference between these groups in their ability to recognize concussive symptoms (P= 0.08) or in the knowledge level regarding concussion management (P= 0.68). There was no significant difference between parents with children who participate in more than one sport and those whose children participate in gymnastics only (P= 0.76). Those who have personally (themselves or their children) been diagnosed with a concussion and those who had never been diagnosed with a concussion were not significantly different in their overall concussion knowledge (P= 1.92). Parents have a moderate level of knowledge regarding some aspects of concussive injuries. Additional educational opportunities for parents may help increase concussion awareness.
A Review and Analysis of Current Treatment Approaches Used by Athletic Trainers for Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Mita, Takashi
Certified athletic trainers (ATs) are often tasked to treat Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome (MTSS) in the athletic population. Further, they are expected to provide effective treatment approaches based on the scientific evidence. The goal of this study was to review current treatment options chosen by ATs and to assess possible relationships between AT’s demographics and their chosen treatment options. This web-based survey was completed by 131 ATs. The survey collected demographic information and treatment options used. Data were analyzed to assess the relationships between treatment options and independent variables including clinical setting, education, and years of experience. Four relationships were found between independent variables and the use of treatment options. Based on a review of the literature, most treatment options selected by ATs are supported by existing evidence. It is essential for ATs to have knowledge of the best treatment option based on available resources in their particular clinical setting.
Asking Why, Instead of What: Investigating a Picky Eating Spectrum
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Jellison, Savanna Elizabeth Jean Westrom
There is currently no universal definition for picky eating. Picky eating is also currently viewed as a binary decision. The purpose of the current study was to develop a spectrum of picky eating. The researchers used a why instead of what approach to identifying 23 picky eating categories and themes among individuals. Exploratory Factor Analysis was utilized on pilot data (N = 412) and items loaded on three factors. The first factor consisted of 7 items (α = .76) and accounted for 24.56% of the variance in the data. Factor two consisted of 10 items (α = .79) accounting for 9.87% of variance and factor three consisted of 5 items (α = .66) and accounted for 6.85% of the variance. Our results indicate that the picky eating spectrum identifies various behaviors of picky eating that could lead to targeted interventions and potentially reduce parental frustration and picky eating.
Examining Therapeutic Ultrasound Manufacturer Brands, Models, and Common Treatment Parameters Amongst Clinically Practicing Athletic Trainers
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Dimino, Christopher James
Context: Textbook parameters for thermal ultrasound are based on research using the Omnisound 3000 unit. No study has been performed to observe common brands of ultrasound (US) units available to athletic trainers (ATs), or the US parameters they commonly use. Objective: Determine commonly reported US units and heating parameters used by ATs. Design: Digital survey. Setting: Online survey database – Qualtrics. Participants: 21 responding ATs (mean 12.5 ±10.6 years ATC) Results: Chattanooga brand is the most available brand US unit by respondents. Respondent parameters tended to reach 1 and 2°C heating thresholds, but mostly failed to achieve 4°C threshold. Parameters did not differ between more experienced (≥10 years ATC) and less experienced ATCs (≤10 Years ATC). Conclusions: Parameter guidelines need to be updated for clinically effective US use. Key words: therapeutic ultrasound, heating rates, parameters.
An Analysis of Kinesio® Tape on Myofascial Pain Syndrome of the Iliotibial Band
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Riegel, Hannah Nicole
This study analyzed the effects of Kinesio® Tape on pain pressure threshold (PPT) of trigger points (TrPs) within the iliotibial band (ITB). Fifty participants were evaluated for TrPs in the ITB. An algometer was used to measure pre-intervention PPT followed by a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) score for pain. A sham or fascial taping technique was applied. After 10 minutes, a post-intervention PPT was obtained. After 48 hours, participants returned where post-intervention PPT and VAS was obtained with the tape on and PPT again 10 minutes following tape removal. Participants reported a decrease in pain. There was a slight increase in PPT from pre-tape to 10-minutes post tape. An ANOVA model incorporating all four measurements was statistically significant. There is sufficient evidence to suggest the fascial taping technique is effective at manipulating PPT of TrPs. Overall, more pressure was needed to elicit pain and the TrPs became less symptomatic.

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