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Item Whole Wheat Milling and Baking Studies of Hard Red Spring Wheat(North Dakota State University, 2016) Khalid, KhairunizahEnd product quality of whole wheat bread is affected by many complex parameters. The milling method and chemical composition of bran both affect whole wheat bread quality. When using a centrifugal mill, the combination of low tempering moisture level and high rotor speed produced whole-wheat flour with fine particle size, desirable whole-wheat flour quality, manageable dough, and high loaf volume. Fine bran powder was produced with the combination of low tempering moisture level, low feed rate, and high rotor speed. It was also determined that flour attached to bran affects the bran powder’s temperature, protein content, and starch content. Study of the impact of bran components on whole-wheat bread revealed that fiber (FB) highly impacted gluten quality, farinograph parameters, gassing power, oven spring, loaf volume, and bread crumb protein solubility. FB interacted with other bran components (oils, extractable and hydrolysable phenolics) to increase polymeric protein solubility in bread crumb. Hydrolysable phenolics (HP) improved the farinograph stability. However, the interaction of FB with other components decreased bread loaf volume, especially for the interaction of FB-HP. The baking method and the type of wheat used for whole-wheat bread are also important factors to evaluate whole-wheat bread quality. Sponge-and-dough (SpD), straight dough (StD), and no-time dough (NoD) methods were compared. StD had the highest variation in baking mix time, baked weight, crumb grain score, and symmetry score compared to other baking methods. The StD method was the most sensitive method to distinguish variation in whole-wheat flour samples. Location and cultivar effects were investigated for whole-wheat bread quality. Twenty-one hard red spring wheat cultivars grown at 6 locations across North Dakota were evaluated for whole-wheat bread quality. Location contributed 89% to the variability in whole-wheat baking absorption. Cultivar contributed 47% and 41% to the variability in whole-wheat loaf volume and loaf symmetry, respectively. Loaf volume and crumb color were largely under genetic control, and breeders can aim at high loaf volume in whole wheat bread made from hard spring wheat. Overall, whole-wheat flour and bread quality are greatly affected by: milling method, bran composition, baking method, as well as the environment and genotype.Item Improvement of the Physicochemical Attributes and Antioxidants Profiles from Pulse Seeds through Germination(North Dakota State University, 2019) Xu, MinweiEdible pulse seeds are good sources of food ingredients. Germination has been regarded as an effective process to further improve nutrient digestibility and accessibility of pulse seeds. Our aim was to observe the effect of germination on proximate composition, physicochemical attributes, and phenolic profiles of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Merr.), and yellow pea (Pisum sativum L.). In addition, mechanisms of how germination affects the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds were proposed. Chemical composition, thermal, pasting, and moisture adsorption properties of pulse flours were investigated over 6 days of germination. Protein contents increased by 3 percent points for all pulses over germination. However, lentil had the highest protein content. Lipid contents decreased over germination with chickpea having the greatest decline, from 8.00 to 5.90 g/100g (d.b.). Total starch decreased in lentil and yellow pea during germination. Thermal properties of pulse flours changed slightly, while pasting properties varied among pulses. The highest final viscosities for chickpea, lentil, and yellow pea flours were 1061, 981, and 1052 cP and were observed after 2, 1, and 0 days of germination, respectively. Moisture adsorption isotherms showed improved water adsorption capabilities after germination. Soluble free (SFPs) and polar soluble bound phenolic compounds (PSBPs) were extracted from germinated pulse seeds. Their antioxidant activities were evaluated using both the in vitro system and stripped soybean oil (SSO)-in-water emulsions. Liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and size-exclusion chromatography with multiangle-light-scattering and refractive-index detection were employed to analyze the phenolic composition and molar mass, respectively. Antioxidant activities of SFPs increased in both in vitro and SSO-in-water emulsion system, however, much lower than those of PSBPs based on SSO-in-water emulsion system. The effect of germination on PSBPs in SSO-in-water emulsion varied between pulses. By virtue of chemometric analysis, nine phenolic compounds were speculated as the pivotal phenolic compounds responsible for the antioxidant activity of PSBPs. In particular, the molar masses of PSBPs had a positive relationship with their antioxidant activity. Protective and co-antioxidative principles were proposed as reasons for the variability of antioxidant activities of PSBPs in oil-in-water emulsions with germination.Item Evaluation of Pea Protein and Modified Pea Protein as Egg Replacers(North Dakota State University, 2012) Hoang, Hieu DuyNative yellow pea (Pisum sativum) protein isolates (PPIs) showed good foaming and emulsifying properties but a poor gelling characteristic. However, this can be corrected by Transglutaminase (TGase) treatment. PPIs were obtained using alkaline extraction method in which extracting pH, precipitating pH, flour–to–water ratio, and extraction time were optimized to obtain maximum yields and least change in protein functionalities. Extraction pH of 10.0, precipitating pH of 4.3, flour–to–water ratio of 1:6, and 30 minute extraction time were found to be optimum values for pea protein extraction. SDS–PAGE gels showed that the PPI had a very similar protein molecular weight profile as its original flour. TGase treatment was applied on PPIs at different pH levels from 4.3 to 7.0. The SDS–PAGE and RVA tests showed that treatment at pH 6.0 provided the best overall functionality. Large molecular weight (MW) proteins (~ 90,000 Da) and medium MW proteins (~50,000 – 80,000 Da) were the main substrates for TGase catalyzed reaction whereas most low MW the proteins (< 45,000 Da) were not involved. RVA results indicated that treatments at pH 6.0 and 7.0 had the highest viscosities but the treatment at pH 6.0 had better stability and consistency. Functionality tests indicated that modified PPIs possessed a better viscosity profile than the native PPIs but no improvement in gelling capacity and only minor impact on foaming and emulsifying properties. PPIs performance greatly depended on their final pHs. The foaming capacity, foaming stability, and emulsion capacity were significantly improved when the final pH of PPIs was adjusted from 4.3 to 7.0. The overall sensory evaluation results suggested that TGase–treated PPIs and PPIs were not yet able to replace egg in the cake system. Only PPI can replace egg in the cookie system. TGase–treated samples had a lower acceptability due to an “off–taste” and a “strange” flavor. Future work, therefore, should study TGase combined with other treatments to further improve PPIs functionalities. Purification should be integrated into extraction process and other food systems should also be included to extent the scope and role of modified PPIs in food industry.Item Identification of Molecular Markers Linked to X-Disease Resistance in Chokecherry(North Dakota State University, 2012) Wang, HongxiaX-disease, caused by phytoplasmas, is one of the destructive diseases in stone fruit trees, causing yield loss and poor fruit quality. So far no effective methods are available to control X-disease. X-disease resistance has been first discovered in chokecherry (Prunus virginiana, 2n=4x=32), which is a native woody species of North America. To identify molecular markers linked to X-disease resistance, simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were used to construct genetic linkage maps for chokecherry and to identify markers associated with X-disease resistance in chokecherry. In this research, three segregating populations of chokecherry were developed by crossing one X-disease resistant (CL) with three susceptible chokecherry lines (a, c, and d), of which the progenies were 101, 177, and 82, respectively. In order to construct a genetic map for chokecherry, 108 pairs of SSR primers were employed from other Prunus species. Additionally, a set of 246 SSRs were developed from chokecherry sequencing by Roche 454 sequencing technology. A total of 354 pairs of SSR primers were used to screen individuals of all three populations. Two software programs, TetraploidMap and JoinMap, were used to construct linkage map based on single-dose restriction fragments (SDRFs) and two parental linkage maps were generated for each population from both software programs. Bulked segregant analysis (BSA) was applied for identification of X-disease resistance markers. As a result, one SSR marker was found to be linked to the X-disease resistance. The set of 246 chokecherry SSRs was later used to test transferability among another 11 rosaceous species (sour cherry, sweet cherry, wild cherry, peach, apricot, plum, apple, crabapple, pear, june berry, and raspberry). As a result, chokecherry SSR primers can be transferable in Prunus species or other rosaceous species. An average of 63.2% and 58.7% of amplifiable chokecherry primers amplified DNA from cherry and other Prunus species, respectively, while 47.2% of amplifiable chokecherry primers can be transferable to other rosaceous species. The genetic information, including genetic map, disease linked marker, chokecherry sequence, and confirmed transferability of the identified chokecherry SSRs to other species, will benefit the genetic research in Prunus and other rosaceous species.Item Combining metabolite breeding with good agronomic performance in dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)(North Dakota State University, 2024) Rodriguez, OscarGrowth habit is one of the most important domestication traits in dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). In the U.S., Type II indeterminate upright varieties have helped farmers to switch from historic two-pass harvest to one-pass in direct harvest. Previous work suggested a stem diameter of 5.6 mm as threshold to select Type II architecture plants suitable for direct combining. In addition, the metabolic profile of indeterminate plants in dry bean is of great interest not only to define differences in seed coat color but to observe relationships with other traits, plant growth one of them. This study aimed to validate the correlation between stem diameter and other agronomic traits using breeding lines from a commercial program; further, this study investigates stem diameter as selection criteria to select genotypes that combine high seed yield and upright architecture, and to find genetic regions related to plant height, stem diameter and metabolic profile using a GWAS. Overall, mean stem diameter values were above 7.5 mm, higher than the proposed threshold of 5.6 mm. Stem diameter, showed no significant GxE interactions and the highest broad-sense heritabilities for pinto and slow darkening pinto. In market classes black, great northern, and navy plant height was the most relevant trait for seed yield variation, while stem diameter had low effect. In contrast, plant height and stem diameter are required to explain part of seed yield variability and continue selecting upright plants for pinto, red/pink, and SD-pinto. According to the GWAS, a region on chromosome Pv07 (40 Mb), was shared between plant height and stem diameter. Genes found in this region relate to plant growth and disease avoidance, which makes this region interesting to continue with further studies for plant architecture. Regarding metabolic studies GWAS identified a very interesting region on chromosome Pv01 (61.4 Mb), related to the enzyme Flavonoid 3'-monooxygenase / Flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase. This enzyme is present in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway. However, it could also have relationship to plant growth. Further cloning of this region would be ideal to confirm differences in seed coat color and plant growth.Item Association Mapping and Genetic Diversity Studies of Agronomic and Quality Traits in Durum Wheat [Triticum turgidum L. var. durum (Desf.)](North Dakota State University, 2017) Johnson, MarinaGenetic diversity studies in breeding programs are important to identify parental lines for hybridization and introgression of desirable alleles into elite germplasm. The genetic diversity analysis of 283 North Dakota State University (NDSU) advanced durum wheat breeding lines developed during the last 20 years indicated that the population was structured according to its breeding history. Total genetic diversity analysis (HT = 0.334) showed adequate level of genetic variation. The results will help in breeding efforts to broaden the genetic base and select lines for crossing as well as for genetic and genomic studies to facilitate the combination of desirable alleles. The quantitative nature of important target traits, combined with environmental effects, makes it difficult to bring the desirable improvement in durum wheat to meet the expectations of all the stakeholders involved in the durum wheat industry. With an objective to identify molecular markers for marker-assisted breeding (MAB), the present study attempted to identify marker-trait associations for six agronomic and 29 quality traits using a genome-wide association study (GWAS) mapping approach. The study used two types of phenotypic datasets, a historic unbalanced dataset belonging to a total of 80 environments collected over a period of 16 years and a balanced dataset collected from two environments, to identify the applicability of historic unbalanced phenotypic data for GWAS analysis. A total of 292 QTL were identified for agronomic and quality traits, with 10 QTL showing major effects (R2 >15%). Over 45% of QTL for agronomic and quality traits were present in both the unbalanced and balanced datasets, with about 50% of those present in both environments in the balanced dataset. Genome-wide association mapping studies identified several candidate markers for use in marker-assisted selection (MAS) for height, gluten strength, distribution of small kernels, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity, and yield.Item Identification of Molecular Markers for Marker-Assisted Selection of Malting Quality and Associated Traits in Barley(North Dakota State University, 2015) Jung, RenataBarley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is one of the most important cereal crops in North Dakota, which ranks second amongst all states for barley production in the United States. Barley is used for the production of malt, which is used for brewing beer. The malting and brewing industries set strict standards for malt quality; yet, determining malt quality of experimental barley lines is very expensive. For this reason, quality is typically determined at the latter stages of the breeding program, resulting in rejection of many genotypes after large investments for agronomic performance, disease resistance, and end-use quality evaluations have occurred. High quality malt cultivars must possess numerous genetically controlled characteristics. This limits the effectiveness of phenotypic selection for malt quality. The use of marker-assisted selection (MAS) may enable breeders to eliminate lines with undesirable traits earlier in the breeding process, reducing costs, and improving genetic gain. In spite of the large number of mapped QTLs, few examples exist in the literature in which QTL analysis and MAS have been applied to the genetic improvement of malting barley. This research was initiated to identify robust marker-trait associations for malting quality, disease resistance, and agronomic traits utilizing genome-wide association mapping of selected NDSU two-rowed lines. Our research successfully identified numerous marker-trait associations for the traits evaluated to be used for MAS to improve the North Dakota State University barley breeding program.Item Early-Season Weed Control in Direct-Seeded Onion (Allium Cepa L.)(North Dakota State University, 2012) Loken, James RyanOnion is a poor competitor with early-season broadleaf weeds. In addition, there are no current herbicide labels that allow POST application prior to the onion two-leaf stage in ND and PRE herbicide options provide inconsistent results. Bromoxynil and oxyfluorfen at reduced rates plus adjuvants were evaluated in the greenhouse for common lambsquarters and redroot pigweed control and crop safety when applied to onion prior to the two-leaf stage. Bromoxynil and oxyfluorfen plus methylated seed oil (MSO) or petroleum oil concentrate (POC) had the greatest onion safety compared to other tested adjuvants and provided acceptable weed control 12 d after three sequential applications. 14C-oxyfluorfen absorption was evaluated in the laboratory 24 h after treatment and oxyfluorfen absorption was greatest at 35 C compared to 15 and 25 C. Multiple applications of bromoxynil and oxyfluorfen at reduced rates were further evaluated with MSO or POC in field experiments. Bromoxynil provided 12% better common lambsquarters control and 9 t/ha greater large-grade onion yield than oxyfluorfen. Greater reduced rates resulted in greater common lambsquarters control and reduced common lambsquarters stand density. Common lambsquarters control was 24 to 32% greater when POC or MSO were used, respectively, compared to no adjuvant. Bromoxynil did not reduce onion stand/m as rates increased, but oxyfluorfen reduced onion stand as rates increased. Four or five sequential bromoxynil or oxyfluorfen applications every 7 d resulted in 14 to 19% greater weed control than three sequential applications. Onion stand was severely reduced by PRE herbicide and multiple reduced-rate application combinations.Item Quantitative Genetic Analysis of 16 Maize Populations Adapted to the Northern U.S. Corn Belt(North Dakota State University, 2013) Laude, TonetteGenetic diversity is essential for genome sequencing and a key contributor to increase frequency of favorable alleles for maize improvement. The objectives of this study were to determine the genetic components, assess the genetic diversity, and propose the heterotic grouping of a large sample of short-season maize populations based on multiple traits. Sixteen maize populations were included in a diallel mating design that followed Gardner-Eberhart Analysis (GEAN) II to estimate variety (vi) and heterosis (hij) genetic effects. The general combining ability (gi) estimates were also determined and used to classify the populations based on their genetic diversity. Data were generated in partially balanced single lattice experiments across North Dakota (ND) locations in 2010, 2011, and 2012. Combined analyses of variance showed significant differences among genotypes. Heterosis effects explained the most among diallel entries sum of squares for grain yield, while vi effects had greater influence on grain quality traits. The gi effects agreed with the genetic effect that had larger contribution to the total among diallel entries sum of squares for various traits. Three groups were formed based on the genetic distances (GD) of the gi estimates. Four heterotic groups were established based on sij estimates for grain yield. Close correspondence was observed between the groups formed using GD and sij. The heterotic grouping among populations agreed with their genetic background information and heterotic group’s specific and general combining ability (HSGCA) estimates. The EARLYGEM 21 populations having exotic background were assigned to a unique heterotic group. The heterotic groups established among these populations will increase breeding efficiency to improve and develop genetically broad-based populations. Inter-population recurrent selection programs can be employed for population crosses with high grain yield and above average grain quality formed by parental populations belonging to different heterotic groups. Intra-population recurrent selection programs can also be established for the parental populations identified with desirable grain quality traits. These populations will serve as unique germplasm sources of short-season diverse inbred lines to produce the next generation of diverse northern U.S. hybrids. New heterotic patterns have been established as a source of new commercially viable single-cross and population hybrids. [Full abstract in document contains symbols]Item Genetic Diversity and Genome-Wide Association Mapping of Agronomic, Disease Resistance, and Quality Traits in Barley Accessions from Ethiopia, Icarda, and the U.S.(North Dakota State University, 2015) Daba, Sintayehu DebebePlant breeding is a dynamic process that incorporates new germplasm to introduce genetic variation. Knowledge gained from genetic diversity studies and identification of potentially useful germplasm is critical for efficiently utilizing these new materials for breeding program. Linkage disequilibrium (LD), diversity, and association mapping analyses in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) were done using a mapping panel that included Ethiopian landraces, and cultivars and breeding lines from the Ethiopian, ICARDA, and NDSU breeding programs. LD decayed within 10 to 20 cM in the mapping panel and large proportions of unlinked loci were found to have large LD estimates, indicating that factors other than linkage contributed to LD. Diversity analyses using phenotypic data and molecular markers indicated that the mapping panel was highly structured according to spike row-type, geographic origin, and breeding history; thus, accounting for population structure and familial relatedness was crucial for association analyses. Comparison of the four models (Naïve, P, K, and P+K) indicated that the P+K model is the best model for the current mapping panel. The genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 94 QTL for 14 agronomic and disease resistance traits; and 145 QTL for 11 malt and grain quality traits. Association mapping of agronomic and disease resistance traits identified six photoperiod related loci (Ppd_H1, HvFT4, HvGI, HvFT2, HvCO2, and HvCO1) and one vernalization-related locus (VRN-H1) for days to heading, one semi-dwarf locus (sdw3) for plant height, and four resistance loci (Rrs1, Rrs15, rpt.k and rpt.r). The largest number of QTL for malt and grain quality traits was detected in chromosome 5H, followed by chromosome 7H. QTL for malt and grain quality traits were mapped near the Hor1, Hor2, Upg2, Dor4, Ltp1, Amy1, and Amy2 loci. Several unique QTL were identified in the ICARDA and NDSU accessions, with the NDSU materials having the favorable marker genotypes. These regions could be useful to the Ethiopian breeding program for improving malt quality. The current study indicated that association mapping provided useful tool to identify QTL for several traits simultaneously. Because the QTL had small effect and distributed across the genome, genome selection may be warranted for improving these traits.