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Item Whole Wheat Milling and Baking Studies of Hard Red Spring Wheat(North Dakota State University, 2016) Khalid, KhairunizahEnd product quality of whole wheat bread is affected by many complex parameters. The milling method and chemical composition of bran both affect whole wheat bread quality. When using a centrifugal mill, the combination of low tempering moisture level and high rotor speed produced whole-wheat flour with fine particle size, desirable whole-wheat flour quality, manageable dough, and high loaf volume. Fine bran powder was produced with the combination of low tempering moisture level, low feed rate, and high rotor speed. It was also determined that flour attached to bran affects the bran powder’s temperature, protein content, and starch content. Study of the impact of bran components on whole-wheat bread revealed that fiber (FB) highly impacted gluten quality, farinograph parameters, gassing power, oven spring, loaf volume, and bread crumb protein solubility. FB interacted with other bran components (oils, extractable and hydrolysable phenolics) to increase polymeric protein solubility in bread crumb. Hydrolysable phenolics (HP) improved the farinograph stability. However, the interaction of FB with other components decreased bread loaf volume, especially for the interaction of FB-HP. The baking method and the type of wheat used for whole-wheat bread are also important factors to evaluate whole-wheat bread quality. Sponge-and-dough (SpD), straight dough (StD), and no-time dough (NoD) methods were compared. StD had the highest variation in baking mix time, baked weight, crumb grain score, and symmetry score compared to other baking methods. The StD method was the most sensitive method to distinguish variation in whole-wheat flour samples. Location and cultivar effects were investigated for whole-wheat bread quality. Twenty-one hard red spring wheat cultivars grown at 6 locations across North Dakota were evaluated for whole-wheat bread quality. Location contributed 89% to the variability in whole-wheat baking absorption. Cultivar contributed 47% and 41% to the variability in whole-wheat loaf volume and loaf symmetry, respectively. Loaf volume and crumb color were largely under genetic control, and breeders can aim at high loaf volume in whole wheat bread made from hard spring wheat. Overall, whole-wheat flour and bread quality are greatly affected by: milling method, bran composition, baking method, as well as the environment and genotype.Item Evaluation of Pea Protein and Modified Pea Protein as Egg Replacers(North Dakota State University, 2012) Hoang, Hieu DuyNative yellow pea (Pisum sativum) protein isolates (PPIs) showed good foaming and emulsifying properties but a poor gelling characteristic. However, this can be corrected by Transglutaminase (TGase) treatment. PPIs were obtained using alkaline extraction method in which extracting pH, precipitating pH, flour–to–water ratio, and extraction time were optimized to obtain maximum yields and least change in protein functionalities. Extraction pH of 10.0, precipitating pH of 4.3, flour–to–water ratio of 1:6, and 30 minute extraction time were found to be optimum values for pea protein extraction. SDS–PAGE gels showed that the PPI had a very similar protein molecular weight profile as its original flour. TGase treatment was applied on PPIs at different pH levels from 4.3 to 7.0. The SDS–PAGE and RVA tests showed that treatment at pH 6.0 provided the best overall functionality. Large molecular weight (MW) proteins (~ 90,000 Da) and medium MW proteins (~50,000 – 80,000 Da) were the main substrates for TGase catalyzed reaction whereas most low MW the proteins (< 45,000 Da) were not involved. RVA results indicated that treatments at pH 6.0 and 7.0 had the highest viscosities but the treatment at pH 6.0 had better stability and consistency. Functionality tests indicated that modified PPIs possessed a better viscosity profile than the native PPIs but no improvement in gelling capacity and only minor impact on foaming and emulsifying properties. PPIs performance greatly depended on their final pHs. The foaming capacity, foaming stability, and emulsion capacity were significantly improved when the final pH of PPIs was adjusted from 4.3 to 7.0. The overall sensory evaluation results suggested that TGase–treated PPIs and PPIs were not yet able to replace egg in the cake system. Only PPI can replace egg in the cookie system. TGase–treated samples had a lower acceptability due to an “off–taste” and a “strange” flavor. Future work, therefore, should study TGase combined with other treatments to further improve PPIs functionalities. Purification should be integrated into extraction process and other food systems should also be included to extent the scope and role of modified PPIs in food industry.Item Structural, Rheological and Biological Functionality of Fiber-Rich Fractions From Beans(North Dakota State University, 2022) Lopez, Ana Magallanesegumes have been reported as a good source of dietary fiber. This research aimed to understand how soluble dietary fiber (SDF) can be extracted from dry beans to enhance human health. Raw bean samples were ground with a hammer-type mill. Cooked bean samples were boiled to their optimum cooking time, freeze-dried, and ground. Phenolic content was measured by Folin-Coilteau reaction. SDF was extracted by enzymatic digestion (α-amylase, protease, & amyloglucosidase), filtration, SDF flocculation with 95% (v/v) ethanol and freeze-dried. High-Performance Size Exclusion Chromatography (HPSEC) and high-performance anion-exchange chromatography (HPAEC) were used to study SDF composition. Flow behavior was measured at various SDF solution concentrations (2%, 4%, 6% w/v). Immunomodulatory properties were studied in vitro by quantifying the levels of selected cytokines released by RAW264.7 cells (macrophages) when treated with SDF. The impact of macrophages conditioned media (MCM) treated with the SDF on 3T3-L1 adipocyte (fat) cells differentiation (adipogenesis) was assessed. The results showed that cooking processing significantly (p < 0.05) reduced flour phenolic content and antioxidant capacity. The SDF-rich fractions monosaccharide composition indicated the presence of pectic polysaccharides, hemicelluloses and raffinose family of oligosaccharides (RFOs). The SDF molecular weight distribution showed a significant (p < 0.05) reduction of low molecular weight (LMW) fractions after the cooking process. In contrast, the high molecular weight (HMW) fractions were not affected by cooking. Studied SDF solutions were highly viscous, but the viscosity was lost when shear force was applied, thus exhibiting a shear-thinning behavior. For the immunomodulatory properties, the results indicated that the extracted SDF caused a pro-inflammatory response, suggesting its potential use as an immune system stimulator. Regardless of the SDF sample, when TLR-4 signaling inhibitor was added, cytokines production was significantly (p < 0.05) decreased, suggesting the affinity of SDF with the TLR-4 receptor. Finally, a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in lipid accumulation and reduced protein expression of adipogenic markers was detected from adipocytes cultured with MCM treated with SDF. The results suggested that the SDF extracted from dry beans has the potential to reduce adipogenesis and could be used as food supplements to reduce or prevent obesity.Item Fabrication and Characterization of Antifungal Essential Oil-In-Water Nanoemulsion Delivery System Targeting Fusarium Graminearum In Vitro and During the Malting Process(North Dakota State University, 2019) Wan, JingFusarium mycotoxins represent the most food safety concern for the malting industry. The complete prevention of Fusarium mycotoxins in the grains by limiting toxigenic fungi in the field and during storage is not practical. The common way to control Fusarium mycotoxins in malting industry is to avoid infected grains. However, avoidance is not always possible. To ensure the quality and safety of food products, development of food-grade antifungal strategies that can be applied in food processing, would benefit growers and the food industry. Recently, plant-based essential oils (EOs) have received considerable attentions in the food industry due to broad-spectrum of antifungal activities and inhibitory effect against mycotoxin biosynthesis. However, direct application of EOs during the malting process is impractical. In this project, parameters that impact on the formation of EO-in-water nanoemulsions and functional properties including antifungal and mycotoxin inhibitory efficacy were evaluated in vitro. The proper-designed EO-in-water nanoemulsions were then applied in micro-malting process. Results indicated that physically stable EO-in-water nanoemulsions can be fabricated by incorporating either ≥75 wt% of corn oil or ≥50 wt% of medium chain triacylglycerol (MCT) into EO before homogenization and homogenized under optimized processing conditions (68.95 MPa and 2 passes). In general, the mycotoxin inhibitory efficacy of EO was enhanced considerably in nanoemulsion form than bulk oil. Among all selected five EOs, thyme and clove oil-in-water nanoemulsions had the greatest antifungal and mycotoxin inhibitory activities. In terms of emulsifiers, the antifungal activity was mainly dominated by EO rather than emulsifier to alter mycelial and spore cell membrane integrity. At last, clove oil-in-water nanoemulsions stabilized by three different emulsifiers (Tween 80, bovine serum albumin, quillaja saponins) were selected to apply in micro-malting process according to our germinative energy test of barley seeds. All clove oil-in-water nanoemulsions had the capability to inhibit fungal growth and DON production during the micro-malting process. Among the three emulsifiers, Tween 80-stablized clove oil nanoemulsion displayed largest reduction of mycotoxin and least flavor impact on the final malt. The overall project showed a great potential for utilization of EO-in-water nanoemulsion as antifungal agent and mycotoxin inhibitor in the food industry.Item Prediction of Wort Fermentability in Two-Rowed Barley Genotypes(North Dakota State University, 2016) Huerta Zurita, RamonFermentability is the parameter that describes the ability of yeast to turn sweet wort into alcohol. As the efficiency of this process is related with alcohol yield, it will regulate the amount of beer produced from a given amount of malt. Considering that fermentation efficiency is influenced by the concentration of fermentable sugars in wort, the diastatic power (DP) of malt has long been associated with fermentability. However, research studies have shown that DP alone can not explain much of the observed variability (R2≤0.50) between malt samples. Some reports suggest that the separate determination of the activity and thermal stability of some of the enzymes contributing to DP and some malt modification parameters can considerably improve prediction (R2=0.91). On the other hand, few studies have focused on measuring fermentability variation in barley breeding. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of standard and non-standard malt quality parameters on the fermentability of different barley breeding lines, and to select the best multi-linear regression model for predicting this trait. Malts of 90 barley genotypes, grown in different locations of North Dakota during two years, were used in this study. Assays of the DP enzymes alpha-amylase, beta-amylase, alpha-glucosidase, and limit dextrinase, as well as their thermal stabilities (determined at 65°C for 10 min), were performed and adapted to a microplate reader format. Fermentability was determined as the real degree of fermentation (RDF) considering that the apparent degree of fermentation (ADF) showed strong alcohol dependence (R2=0.87), which could give false differences when comparing breeding lines in a population with high genetic variability. Results showed that, contrary to other reports, DP and beta-amylase and its thermostability are not highly associated with fermentability when the hot water extract (HWE) is used as the mashing method. Alpha-amylase and limit dextrinase though, had a more significant influence. The malt quality parameters: wort glucose, wort maltose, limit dextrinase, free amino nitrogen, soluble protein, alpha-amylase, and maltotriose, are considered the most significant factors for predicting fermentability as determined by the regression model (R2=0.71).Item Physicochemical Properties of Commercial Gums and their Effects on Processing and Cooking Quality of Nontraditional Pasta(North Dakota State University, 2012) Sandhu, Gurleen KaurProcessing characteristics and quality of pasta made from durum flour and semolina and the physicochemical properties of commercial gums and their effects on processing and cooking quality of nontraditional pasta was investigated. An initial experiment was conducted using semolina and durum flour fortified with nontraditional ingredients (soy flour or oat flour, 10% w/w) and xanthan, guar or locust bean gums (2% w/w). A second set of experiments were conducted to determine the effect of commercial source of food gums on their effect on the processing and cooking quality of nontraditional pasta. Proper hydration of nontraditional ingredient blends was more easily achieved with durum flour than semolina. This was attributed to the smaller particle size of durum flour compared to semolina. Nontraditional ingredients tended to over hydrate semolina resulting in large aggregates that adhered to metal surfaces, all of which made mixing and pasta processing difficult. Initially, dough strength was greater with durum flour than with semolina, but semolina had better dough stability over time. Soy and oat flours reduced dough strength. Xanthan and guar gums increased dough stability, particularly with durum flour. Pasta made with durum flour generally had greater cooking loss and lower cooked firmness than pasta made from semolina. Soy and oat flours reduced cooked firmness and increased cooking loss. Guar and locust bean gums did not affect cooking quality of pasta. Xanthan gum increased cooked firmness of pasta. Samples of each gum were obtained from three different commercial vendors. For each food gum, samples varied in bulk density, molecular weight, viscosity in distilled water and the magnitude of effect on dough strength with commercial source. The effect of xanthan, guar and locust gums on hydration, dough strength, and cooking quality was not affected by commercial source. The magnitude of the increase in dough strength caused by xanthan and guar gums varied among their respective commercial sources.Item Characteristics of Yam Composite Flour: Properties and Function of Bread and Tortilla Making(North Dakota State University, 2017) Asiyanbi-Hammed, Tawakalit TopeConsumer interest in dietary fiber is on the rise as more information about its potential impact on health has become available. Flour from yam (Dioscorea rotundata) could have useful applications in the baking industry, in composite flour blends, because of its high level of dietary fiber and other essential nutrients. Study of the chemical composition, physicochemical characteristics, and pasting properties of unfermented-white yam flour (UYF) and fermented-brown yam flour (FYF) were investigated. Studies show that composite flour from yam has high ash, total starch, and fiber content than refined wheat flour. Thermal studies showed the energy required for composite flour gelatinization is greater than that of refined wheat flour. The firmness of FYF gel significantly increased with increasing number of days unlike UYF where slight hardness in texture was observed. This study revealed that each flour type exhibited different characteristics when compared to refined wheat flour. This necessitates further studies to substitute the yam flour samples with refined wheat flour to create composite flours that could be employed in bakery products. Inclusion of UYF and FYF flour at 5, 10, 15 and 20% levels of substitution with wheat flour affect the dough physicochemical, rheological pasting properties, and the nutritional quality. Proximate analysis of the flours carried out shows composite flours were of lower protein value but had higher fiber content than refined wheat flour. Impact on the gluten quality, gassing power, farinograph parameters was observed. The farinograph water absorption increased significantly (p<0.05) for blends prepared with UYF. Investigation revealed that the end-product quality (oven spring, loaf volume, bread crumb, tortilla weight, flexibility, thickness and color) of bread loaves and tortilla was significantly affected. This study demonstrated that incorporation of up to 10% FYF flour appears to give acceptable dough with good viscoelastic properties and bread with quality traits similar to refined wheat bread. This might be because bread itself is a fermented bakery product. For the tortilla; an unfermented product, 20% UYF inclusion seems to be more suitable to produce tortillas with good extensibility, acceptable thickness and whiteness with no dark spots that will appeal to the consumers.Item Manufacturing Optimization of Non-Traditional Pasta Products(North Dakota State University, 2015) De La Peña, ElenaA study was conducted to determine the effect of including non-traditional ingredients on the flow and agglomeration properties of flour formulations, the rheological behavior of pasta dough, and the physical and cooked quality of the spaghetti. The effect of including non-traditional ingredients on the chemical changes that occurred in pasta during pasta making and cooking was also investigated. The formulations used were semolina 100% (S), whole wheat flour 100% (WW), semolina-whole wheat flour (49:51) (SWW), semolina-flaxseed flour (90:10), whole wheat flour-flaxseed flour (90:10), and semolina-whole wheat flour-flaxseed flour (39:51:10). Flaxseed flour was incorporated as fine (FF) or coarse (CF) particles. Depending on the experiment, formulations were hydrated to different levels that ranged between 10 and 34%. Study of the flow and agglomeration properties of the formulations indicated that samples containing whole wheat flour and or flaxseed flour were more cohesive and less prone to flow than samples with 100 or 90% semolina. Large agglomerate formation occurred with SFF hydrated beyond 30% moisture; whereas limited large agglomerate formation was detected in whole wheat samples with or without flaxseed flour hydrated up to 34% moisture. Rheological experiments showed that traditional and non-traditional pasta dough behaved like a shear thinning fluid that can be described by the Power Law model. Increased hydration levels and/or presence of flaxseed flour in the dough formulation decreased the apparent viscosity of the dough, which correlated with reduced extrusion pressure, mechanical energy, and specific mechanical energy required to extrude the dough. Better cooked quality was obtained for SWW than for WW, indicating that it is better to have some semolina in the formulation than replacing all the semolina with whole wheat flour. Inclusion of flaxseed flour gave better results when adding the flaxseed to 90% semolina than when adding it to WW or SWW. No chemical interaction was observed between the different ingredients during pasta making and/or cooking. Overall results indicated that the formulation-hydration combinations that optimized the processing and quality of non-traditional pasta products were: 30% for SFF, SCF, SWWFF, and SWWCF, 32% for S, WWFF, and WWCF, 33% for SWW, and 34% for WW.Item Enhancing mechanical properties and water interactions of arabinoxylan films from corn bran through enzymatic-chemical modification(North Dakota State University, 2024) Alahmed, AbdulrahmanDue to the need to replace non-biodegradable plastics, arabinoxylan (AX) films were evaluated for potential use in food packaging. The mechanical properties, hydrophobicity, and biodegradability of AX films were evaluated after extracting AX from corn bran byproducts of dry-milling (DCB), wet-milling (WCB), and dried distiller’s grains with solubles (DDGS) using acid-alkali procedure. Packaging materials were created using the three AX extracts combined with laccase and sorbitol as the basis for each film. The three AX films were then modified by immersing their surfaces in a lipase-acetate solution. Thickness of modified DCB AX and modified DDGS AX films was significantly increased (P<0.05) compared to their unmodified AX films. Tensile properties of the modified DCB AX films were significantly improved (P<0.05), as opposed to the unmodified DCB AX films. Tensile properties of the modified WCB AX and modified DDGS AX films were enhanced, but insignificantly (P>0.05), compared to their unmodified AX films counterparts. Significant increase (P<0.05) in tear resistance and insignificant increase (P>0.05) in puncture resistance were observed for all modified AX films. Moisture content of modified AX films created from DCB, WCB, and DDGS was significantly decreased (P<0.05) compared to unmodified AX films. Significant decrease (P<0.05) in water solubility and insignificant decrease (P>0.05) in water vapor permeability were found in modified DCB AX films compared to unmodified DCB AX films. Insignificant decrease (P>0.05) in water solubility resulted in modified WCB AX films compared to unmodified WCB AX films. Water vapor permeabilities of the modified AX films made from WCB and DDGS were significantly reduced (P<0.05) compared to their unmodified AX films. AX films were positively affected by suspension in the lipase-acetate mixture, making the modified films ductile, flexible, and more resistant to deformation when stretched compared to unmodified AX films. WCB AX and DDGS AX films were more hydrophobic and biodegradable than DCB AX film with the modification of film surface suspension in the lipase-acetate solution. The modified DCB AX films showed better physical and mechanical properties, while the hydrophobicity and biodegradability of modified WCB AX films make it a safer packaging material which can also elongated shelf-life for food.Item Characterization of Edible Bean Flours: Properties and Functionality(North Dakota State University, 2013) Simons, Courtney W.Consumption of pulses is considered part of a healthy diet. Therefore, the opportunity exists for development of new pulse-based ingredients. However, a better understanding of their properties is necessary. The compositional and functional properties will vary depending on the bean type, their physical form (pre-cooked, raw flour, starch or protein fractionates) and growing location. In this study, edible bean flours (pinto, navy, black and small red) were subjected to extrusion cooking to produce snacks and texturized high-protein flour. The extrudates were studied to determine the effect of extrusion on the physical, physicochemical, chemical, sensory, and digestibility properties. Texturized high-protein flour was used in a bread formulation study. Finally, a preliminary study of location effect on production of grassy compounds, e.g. hexanal and hexanol, in pinto beans was conducted to determine importance of growing environment on flavor development during storage. The results of these studies showed that bean flours generally had excellent extrusion properties (good expansion and texture). However, pre-cooked flours had much lower expansion and textural integrity compared to raw bean flours and starch fractionates. Nutritional content (protein, total starch, fiber and ash) of flours were generally retained after extrusion. Lipids and resistant starch (RS) however were significantly reduced. Significant reduction in RS resulted in snacks having high glycemic index. Extrudates had 20% lower raffinose content suggesting reduced potential for flatulence after extrusion processing. Sensory evaluation of pinto, navy and black bean snacks indicated good overall acceptability. Pinto bean high-starch fraction differed in composition and functionality (viscosity and thermal properties) compared to its raw whole flour and extruded form. Adding 5% texturized pinto bean protein to bread increased its lysine content by 50%; without significantly affecting bread quality. A significant statistical interaction between growing location and storage time on hexanol and hexanal concentrations was observed for pinto beans grown in Forest River, Johnstown and Hatton North Dakota. This Dissertation will help processors understand the potential for beans as a food ingredient. Applications may include use in breads and other baked products, extruded puffed snacks, pasta, and soups. Bean flours can improve nutritional quality and provide unique functionality to food systems.