Human Development & Family Science Masters Theses

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Finding a Home for Spirituality in Couple and Family Therapy Training: An Analysis of CFT Educators' Strategies and Methods For Integrating Spirituality Into the CFT Curriculum
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Kekic, Jana
The purpose of this study was to analyze the specific ways that couple and family therapy (CFT) faculty members integrate content on spirituality into the courses they teach. The study used an existing data set consisting of 93 CFT faculty members who taught in accredited master's and/or doctoral level CFT programs of which 47 were male and 46 were female. The participants completed an electronic survey for this study. The predominant religious or spiritual affiliation within the sample was Christian. The results of this study suggested that many participants were following recommendations from the literature on ways to integrate topics of spirituality into the teaching and supervision of CFT students. However, the results of this study also indicated that infusion of spirituality into the curricula is an idea worthy of further exploration in the research.
Parents' Relationship, Differing Parenting Styles and the Effects on their Children
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Kasson, Ashley Ann
The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of parenting practices, the impact of differing parenting practices, and how gender of the parent and child impact child outcomes. The sample for this study was taken from parents whose children are participating in the Early Risers Program. These parents completed two questionnaires. Parental involvement, communication, and discipline scales were the focus of these questionnaires. To assess the child's strengths, parents also reported on their child's interpersonal strength, family involvement, intrapersonal strength, affective strength, and school functioning. This study examines how the gender of a parent and the differing parenting styles between partners affects a child's development. Specifically, it was expected that the same-sex parent of a child has more influence on a child than the opposite-sex parent, and mixed parenting styles will affect the development of a child differently than parents parenting with similar parenting practices. The results show that same-sex parents have more influence over certain child outcomes. No significance was found for the influences of differing parenting practices on a child's outcome. The study provides a closer look at the influences of gender and parenting practices on child outcomes and compares whether parents' distress level or differential parenting styles among partners has more influence over child outcomes.
Women's Sexual Attitudes, Body Image, and Sexual Activity: A Mediation Analysis
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Lerner, Jessica Lynne
Currently, an increasing number of women report sexual difficulties, and previous research has shown that both sexual attitudes and body image have a significant impact on women's sexual activity. While previous studies measured the influence of sexual attitudes and body image separately on sexual activity, the present study instead used mediational analyses to determine the direction of effects that sexual attitudes and body image have on sexual activity. Online surveys were administered to 401 emerging adult undergraduate and graduate female students. The surveys included self-report measures of conservative versus liberal sexual attitudes, body image, and frequency of sexual activity. Results indicated that liberal sexual attitudes predicted greater sexual activity. While mediation was not evident, indirect effects existed such that more liberal sexual attitudes led to higher body image which, in turn, led to increased sexual activity. Results also indicated that higher body image satisfaction predicted greater sexual activity. Evidence of partial mediation suggested that body image satisfaction led to more liberal sexual attitudes which, in turn, led to increased sexual activity. Although body image and sexual attitudes are both important factors that affect sexual activity, each influence alone is not enough to explain the complex cognitive process that leads to decisions regarding sexual activity. Therefore, prevention and intervention work for sexual difficulties should focus on how both factors work together to influence women's sexual experiences with a vigilant focus on reducing the effects of women's body and sexual objectification as one step toward improving their overall health and well-being in family, couple, or dating contexts.
An Exploration of the Relationship Among Community Norms, Identification with Community, and Prosocial Behavior
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Rust, Courtney Lynn
Proponents of social identity theory assert that individuals are motivated to behave in ways consistent with the norms of the social groups in which they belong. The goal of the study was to test the relationship between group norms, specifically residential groups and religious groups, and prosocial behavior. The linkages between participants' degree of identification with their current community, perceived encouragement of prosocial behavior by the community, and self-reports of prosocial behavior were examined. Based on previous research on social identity theory and the role of prosocial behavior norms in religious communities (Saraglou, Pichon, Trompette, Verschueren, & Demelle, 2005; Y ouniss, McLellan, & Yates, 1999), it was hypothesized that participants who rated religion as more important would report higher levels of pro social behavior than participants who rated religion as less important. It was also hypothesized that participants who identified strongly with their community and resided in a community that supported pro social behavior would report higher levels of pro social behavior than those who did not identify strongly with their community and/or those whose community did not support prosocial behavior. Women reported higher levels of prosocial behavior than did men. There was not a significant association between the importance of religion and individual prosocial behavior. At the bivariate level, there were significant positive correlations among the perception that the community encouraged prosocial behavior, identification with the community, and the individual's self-reported level of prosocial behavior. A multiple regression analysis showed that only identification with the community significantly predicted prosocial behavior, and there was no interaction between community encouragement of prosocial behavior and identification with the community. Explanations for findings and directions for future research are discussed.
Post Collegiate Preparedness of Graduating College Seniors at North Dakota State University
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Onken, Joshua Dean
The purpose of this study was to gain new insight on the preparedness for postcollegiate life of graduating college seniors who are living or have lived on-campus in the residence halls in comparison to those who have moved off-campus or have never lived oncampus at North Dakota State University. An independent survey instrument was developed to assess post-collegiate preparedness for three key student outcomes: self-awareness and interpersonal sensitivity, citizenship, and life skills management. A comparison was made between the data collected from participating graduating seniors who live on-campus to that of the data collected from participating graduating seniors who live off-campus to determine the level of preparedness for post-collegiate life of each group. Additionally, a comparison was made between data collected from participating graduating seniors who have lived oncampus to that of data collected from participating seniors who have never lived oncampus. Results comparing students living on-campus vs. off-campus showed differences in the areas of curiosity, student leadership, and employment while attending college. Results comparing students who have lived on-campus vs. never lived on-campus showed differences in the areas of leadership, campus involvement, and post-graduation employment.
An Exploration of the Relationship between College Women's Self-Reported Religiosity and Sexuality
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Meyhuber, Karisa Jo
This study explored how female college students' religiosity varied according to their sexual behavior and attitudes. However, research is limited to showing that never-married female college students who have a high degree of religious commitment are less likely to engage in sexual intercourse without being in a committed relationship (Beckwith & Morrow, 2005; Earle et al., 2007; Jessor & Jessor, 1975; Mahoney, 1980; Meier, 2003; Robinson & Calhoun, 1983; Thornton & Camburn, 1989). Four hundred fifty-one emerging adult female college students from a Midwestern university participated in this study, ranging in age from 18 to 25 years old. Participants for the larger study completed an online survey which asked for demographic information, sexual activity, sexual attitudes, body image, and religiosity. An independent sample t-test was used to test whether there was a statistical difference in religiosity between ( 1) participants who are or have been sexually active, and (2) those who have not engaged in sexual activity. An independent samples t-test was also used to test for statistical difference in religiosity between the types of sexual activity ( e.g., anal sex, oral sex, and mutual masturbation) participants considered to be "sex." It was found that women who did not engage in sexual activity were more religious than those who engaged in sexual activity. Participants who believed oral sex or mutual masturbation were sex did not differ significantly in religion; however, women who did not consider anal sex to be sex were more religious while those who did consider it to be sex were less religious. Religiosity and sexuality issues should be addressed in therapy with this population in order to better understand the roles they play in regards to self views and developing relationships.
Social Perceptions of Adolescents Based on Height and Facial Maturity
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Pforr, Elise Marie
This study explored the influence of adolescent height and facial maturity on adult social perceptions of their competence. A sample of95 college students completed questionnaires rating the competence level of target adolescents based on manipulated full-body images of the targets. Findings indicate that height significantly contributed to social perceptions of adolescents; however, facial maturity did not. Furthermore, when physical characteristics were concordant, tall mature-faced adolescents were perceived as more competent than short baby-faced adolescents. When physical characteristics were discordant (tall with a baby face and short with a mature face), competence ratings were not significantly different. The limitations of this study and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Diversity and Social Justice in Couple and Family Therapy Training: An Evaluation of Accredited Programs
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Ostrom, Angela Lynn
Over the past 15 years, the literature in the field of couple and family therapy (CFT) has called for training programs to make issues of social justice a central concern in the training of couple and family therapists (Guanipa, 2003; Laszloffy & Hardy, 2000; Leslie & McDowell, 2004; McGeorge, Carlson, Erickson, & Guttormson, 2006). During that time the Commission on Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education (COAMFTE) made several changes to the accreditation standards that required programs to integrate social justice principles and practices into CFT training. Recently, however, the COAMFTE removed many of these social justice requirements from its most current accreditation standards. Most notably, programs are now able to create their own definitions of diversity in addition to their own benchmarks for achieving diversity. The purpose of this study was to examine how CFT programs are currently defining diversity and whether or not those definitions are consistent with the current feminist and social justice training literature. Nineteen participants from different accredited CFT programs participated in the study. The results demonstrated inconsistency in the ways that programs define diversity and an overall lack of measureable benchmarks for achieving diversity.
Preparing for the "Silver Tsunami": Grand Forks Analyzes Recreational Opportunities and Challenges for an Aging Baby Boomer Generation.
(North Dakota State University, 2010) lseminger, Colette Kim
The purpose of this study was to explore differences in the recreation areas of lifelong learning, intergenerational programs, fitness and exercise, art and culture programs, and the ability to stay up-to-date with technology between the current senior citizen generations and the aging baby boomer generation. Survey questionnaires were administered to 49 respondents of the baby boomer generation and 66 respondents of the current senior citizen generations. Results of the survey showed a strong negative correlation between age and the person's self-proclaimed need for the recreation areas studied. The baby boomers of Grand Forks, for the most part, are similar to the national cohort in their wants and needs in these five recreation areas.
Perceptions of Negative Attributes of Never-Married Custodial Mothers and Fathers: A Comparison Study
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Haire, Amanda Rae
The present study examined the differences in the perceptions of the negative attributes of never-married custodial single mothers and fathers. The existing literature indicated that never-married single mothers and fathers were perceived differently; however, no previous study has examined perceptions of negative qualities that society assigns to never-married custodial single mothers and fathers. Thus, this study examined participants' perceptions of the negative attributes of never-married custodial single mothers and fathers and applied a feminist framework to determine what gender based differences existed in these perceptions. The results of the thematic analysis suggested that participants' perceptions of never-married single mothers and fathers' negative attributes varied primarily by gender of the single parent. Moreover, the results of the thematic analysis also suggested that participants' perceptions of the negative attributes of single mothers are primarily personal in nature while the perceptions of single fathers are situational. The results further suggest that participants' perceptions focused on the composition of a healthy family as well as reflected negative beliefs about single mothers' sexuality and not single fathers'. Suggestions for future research and clinical implications are also offered.
NDSU Faculty Turnover Study
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Benz, Rachel Ann
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the reasons behind faculty turnover from North Dakota State University (NDSU). A list of 45 faculty members who left NDSU between May of 2008 and March of2010 was gathered from the NDSU Office of Equity, Diversity, and Global Relations. Potential participants were contacted with 20 completing phone interviews for this study. Interview questions sought to explore the reasons for faculty member departure, the impact of university policies/procedures on faculty, the NDSU working experience, and comparisons between their former NDSU positions and their current position. Six themes emerged as to why faculty members departed from NDSU. These themes included (I) campus climate, (2) lack of advancement/professional opportunities, (3) position requirement challenges, ( 4) weather/geographical location, (5) family reasons, and (6) salary. Patterns in turnover between STEM/non-STEM disciplines were explored. Gender differences emerged in participant responses in regard to campus climate, mentoring, salary, community climate, and experiences of non-STEM female participants at NDSU. Recommendations for future research, limitations of this study, and implications for practice at NDSU are discussed.
Effect of Perceived Friend Intervention on Individual-level Bullying and Intervention
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Serdiouk, Marina
The main aim of this study was to examine the relation between perceived friend intervention and individual-level bullying and intervention. The mediating role of beliefs about aggression and attitudes toward victims was also investigated. One hundred eighteen students (49 boys and 69 girls) in grades 6 to 8 completed a questionnaire that included items measuring bullying, intervention, beliefs about aggression, and attitudes toward victims. The results of the multilevel analysis revealed that children in friendship groups with low levels of perceived friend intervention were less likely to intervene, but were not more likely to bully. Attitudes toward victims and normative beliefs about aggression did not mediate a relation between perceived friend intervention and individual intervention and bullying. Self-reported bullying had a moderate negative correlation with positive attitudes toward victims and a positive correlation with beliefs about aggression. Propensity to intervene had a moderate positive correlation with positive attitudes toward victims and a small negative correlation with positive beliefs about aggression. Although the mediation model tested in the current study was not supported, this study provides a foundation for studying group-level processes that may influence children's intervention in bullying situations.
Parents Forever: An Assessment of a Brief Divorce Education Program
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Rittenbach, Christina Marie
Parents Forever: Education for Families in Divorce Transition is a four-hour divorce education program that is directed toward educating adults about separation, divorce, and the effects on children. While some pilot evaluations have been conducted on this program, there is still limited information regarding its effectiveness (Dworkin & Karahan, 2005). This study addressed the effects of the program for parents or caregivers who are undergoing separation or divorce. The study assessed how individuals perceived the program and its influence on their knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. At the conclusion of the four-hour session, the program facilitators distributed the first retrospective questionnaire and asked the attendees to participate and answer the questions to the best of their ability. If the participants chose to continue in the study, they were sent the follow-up questionnaire in the mail approximately six weeks after completing the program. Gathering data six weeks after course completion provided information about the short-term effects of the program. Results indicated that participants perceived the program to be valuable and beneficial, and they felt the program helped them increase their knowledge on the topics covered in the workshop, as well as positively change their behavior towards their children and former partners.
The Influence of Appearance-Related Teasing by Parents, Siblings, and Peers on Adolescents' Body Image with Appearance-Related Social Comparison as a Mediator
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Schaefer, Mallary Kay
Body image refers to how individuals experience and perceive their bodies and can be affected by many factors, including peers and family members. Adolescence is a time when body image concerns are emphasized due to the bodily changes of puberty as well as increased internalization of cultural ideals and pressure to adhere to those ideals. Appearance-related teasing is one particular sociocultural factor that is gaining attention in the research field due to the emphasis placed on appearance during adolescence. The current study examined how appearance-related teasing by peers, parents, and siblings affected young adolescents' body image both directly and indirectly via social comparison. Further, because body image is a multidimensional construct and can include body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity, the present study examined both of these constructs separately. I collected self-report questionnaires from 73 adolescent girls and 67 boys in middle school. I used Pearson correlations, linear regression, and mediation analyses to examine these hypotheses. First, I hypothesized that adolescents who were teased about their appearance by at least one of their parents would also have siblings who teased them. I found significant correlations between both fathers' and mothers' teasing and siblings' teasing, suggesting that parents are modeling teasing behaviors to their children. Second, I hypothesized that appearance-related teasing by fathers, mothers, peers, and siblings would each be associated with body dissatisfaction for girls and drive for muscularity for boys. My findings indicated that mothers', fathers', peers', and siblings' teasing predicted girls' body dissatisfaction and that mothers' and fathers' teasing predicted boys' drive for muscularity. Therefore, appearance-related teasing appears to be detrimental behavior that negatively influences adolescents' body image. Third, I hypothesized that appearance-related social comparison would mediate the relationship between appearance-related teasing from all sources and body dissatisfaction among girls and drive for muscularity among boys. Appearance-related social comparison fully mediated the relationship between fathers' teasing and girls' body dissatisfaction and the relationship between mothers' teasing and boys drive for muscularity. My findings suggest that boys and girls who were teased about their appearance were more likely to engage in social comparison, which negatively impacted their body image. Therapists need to be aware of the role family members' and peers' appearance-related teasing play in the development of adolescents' body image in order to address the occurrence and negative effects of teasing. In addition, researchers will need to conduct future studies further investigating appearance-related teasing by family members and peers and design intervention and prevention programs to address teasing and social comparison among the family and peer contexts.
Gender Influences on Perceptions of Marital Reconciliation
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Hanten, Allyson Rachel
This study examines the process of marital reconciliation. More specifically, it addresses gender influences regarding perceptions of the marital reconciliation process. Also, this study identifies how turning points in the process of marital reconciliation are similar and different between the partners in the marital dyad. A qualitative methodology was used to better understand gender similarities and differences in marital reconciliation. Interviews with six married couples, 11 participants total, were conducted for this study. This study allows for a better understanding of male and female perspectives related to potential threats to marital stability and processes that help couples resolve relationship difficulties or challenges.
Referring Clients Based Solely on Sexual Orientation: An Exploration of the Role of Homophobia and Clinical Competence
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Farrell, Molly Teresa
The purpose cf this study was to explore how homophobia and clinical competence influence experienced clinicians' beliefs and practices regarding referring a LGB client based solely on the sexual orientation of the client. The data for this study came from a larger study with a sample of 741 experienced clinicians who were all members of the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT). Participants were contacted through email and if they chose to participate they completed the survey on-line. There were two measures used for this study, 1) the combined Modem Homophobia Scale (MHS); (Raja & Stokes, 1998) and 2) the combined knowledge/skill subscale from the Revised-Sexual Orientation Counselor Competency Scale (R-SOCCS); (Bidell, 2005; Carlson, McGeorge, & Toomey, in press) as well as two yes/no questions about referring LGB clients. The results of this study indicated that therapists who have referred a LGB client based solely on the client's sexual orientation had higher levels of homophobia than those who had never referred a LGB client based solely on the client's sexual orientation. Clinicians' level of clinical competence to work with LGB clients did not appear to influence their beliefs about the ethical nature or practices of referring a LGB client based solely on the client's sexual orientation. Furthermore, many therapists in this study believe it should be ethical to refer a client based solely on the sexual orientation of the client, though most of them had not actually made such a referral. The AAMFT Code of Ethics is discussed throughout this thesis in order to explore the ethical issues related to referring a client based solely on the client's sexual orientation. This study provides important implications for therapists, couple and family therapy training programs, as well as the AAMFT regarding the ethical nature of the practice of referring a LGB client based solely on the client's sexual orientation.
Generative Fathering and Married Adult Children's View of Connectedness between their Fathers and Themselves
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Peterson, Bethany Ann
This study utilized a phenomenological approach to examine adult children's views of how their fathers connected with them as children. Participants consisted of 10 men and 12 women between the ages of 30 and 60 who were interviewed about connection experiences with their fathers. Participants completed interviews related to their perspectives on being fathered, experiences as a son or daughter, and what they experienced in connecting with their fathers. Findings indicated that fathers connect with children through a variety of contexts that include memorable occasions, activities, personal interactions, routines, events, and other means. Also. obstacles to connection between fathers and children were explored. Study findings and their implications for theory, research, and practical application are discussed.
The Influence of Fathers on Adolescent Boys' and Girls' Disordered Eating
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Bulat, Amanda Emily
Because eating disorders and body dissatisfaction are significant problems in adolescence, it is important to study the sociocultural influences that may be associated with these attitudes and behaviors. Researchers have been thorough in studying maternal influences on adolescents' disordered eating attitudes and behaviors; however, fathers have not been examined in sufficient detail as to their potential influence on the development of such issues. This study explored the role fathers play in the development of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors among middle-school aged boys and girls. In particular, this study sought to find out how fathers' own dieting behaviors, teasing behaviors, feedback regarding weight, and encouragement to lose weight (e.g., actively promoting weight loss or persuasion to lose weight, regardless of whether or not the adolescent was at a healthy body weight) affected disordered eating in adolescent males and females. Self-report questionnaires were collected from 62 girls and 63 boys, who were in seventh to ninth grades. We used independent sample t-tests to examine gender differences, Pearson correlations to examine associations among fathers' behaviors and adolescents' disordered eating, and multiple regression analyses to examine which father behaviors most influenced adolescents' disordered eating. Although boys received slightly more encouragement to lose weight and feedback about appearance from fathers, and girls reported slightly more teasing and father engagement in dieting behaviors, none of these differences were statistically significant. Fathers' encouragement to lose weight was significantly related to both females' and males' disordered eating. Fathers' feedback about weight was significantly related to females' disordered eating, whereas teasing behaviors were significantly related to males' disordered eating. Both girls and boys were most influenced by fathers' encouragement to lose weight, when compared to other paternal behaviors. It is vital that fathers are included in the discussion, education, and research surrounding adolescents' disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. As suggested in this study, it is essential for researchers, clinicians, and educators to be aware of fathers' influence on adolescents' disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. By discussing the vital role that fathers play in their adolescents' lives, more open communication and knowledge can be uncovered to allow for future efforts in preventing disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in adolescents.
A Study of Graduate Student Parents’ Perceptions: Barriers and Resources
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Theisen, Megan Rae
The present study explored the perceptions of students who were both parenting and pursuing a master's or doctoral degree. Specifically, this study examined students' perceptions regarding the usefulness of resources that were currently and could potentially be provided to facilitate successful degree completion. Differences between mothers and fathers were examined as well as differences between master's and doctoral students. Previous literature indicated that women and men experience graduate school differently and that the genders are not represented proportionally as master's and doctoral graduates. Therefore, this study sought to explore differences in the perceptions of resources offered on campus, resources offered in the community, and potential resources. A feminist framework was used to guide all aspects of this study. The results of this study indicated that graduate student parents placed greater value on financial resources and resources related to childcare as well as having a supportive faculty advisor. Independent sample t-tests indicate there were gender differences in perceptions: specifically, women placed greater value on many of the resources studied. In addition, independent sample t-tests did not signify differences between master's and doctoral students' perceptions. These results suggest that there are many specific resources that university could offer graduate student parents in order to support them in completing their degree.
Couple and Family Therapy Students' Attitudes Toward Bisexual Clients
(North Dakota State University, 2012) Nova, Elizabeth Ann
Few studies have focused on student therapists' beliefs about bisexual clients and the impact of affirmative training on these beliefs. The current study explored 1) the level of experience couple and family therapy (CFT) students have with gay, lesbian and bisexual clients; 2) whether CFT students' levels of biphobia and homophobia differ; and 3) whether LGB affirmative training had an impact on self-reported levels of biphobia. Secondary data were used from data collected through electronic and paper surveys. The results revealed that CFT students have similar levels of experience working with bisexual and lesbian clients, but report significantly lower levels of experience with gay male clients. Furthermore, CFT students reported nearly identical levels of biphobia and homophobia. Finally, the results of this study suggest that more LGB affirmative training was associated with lower levels of self-reported biphobia. The findings of this study support CFT training programs implementing LGB affirmative training.

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