Human Development & Family Science Masters Theses

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Social Factors in Healthy Aging: Strain as Risk and Support as Resilience
(North Dakota State University, 2024) Pedersen, Megan
Social factors are an important contributor to the healthy aging of older adults. Previous research has investigated the effects of social strain and social support on older adults’ health separately and jointly. However, most previous work was limited to special populations or single time points. The current study examined indicators of social support and strain as predictors of six physical and mental health outcomes among a nationally representative sample of community-dwelling older adults in the United States, above and beyond sociodemographic factors. Changes in the outcomes were investigated with three waves of data spanning a ten-year period. Results from longitudinal multilevel models indicated that social support significantly predicted higher levels of self-rated health; lower levels of negative affect, loneliness, and unhappiness; and a slower decline in loneliness over time. Social strain significantly predicted higher levels of negative affect, loneliness, and unhappiness, as well as increased daily living difficulties over time.
An Exploratory Study of a Peer Mentoring Program for High School Students with Disabilities
(North Dakota State University, 2024) Bentz, Jordan
Many students with disabilities are isolated from general education classrooms and are restricted in the social opportunities that are available to them. With the shift toward more inclusive education settings, these students are given the chance to develop alongside their general education peers. The present study analyzed a peer mentoring program that partnered students with disabilities (i.e., mentees) and students without disabilities (i.e., mentors) with the goal of promoting inclusion at a high school. The study included a set of focus groups and surveys. The four focus groups included past mentors, teachers, and administrators who answered questions about their perception of the program and the impacts they have seen. For the surveys, mentors (n = 86), mentees (n = 14), and general education students (n = 676) responded to a variety of questions about inclusion at their school, their perceptions of disabilities, and the program’s impact. Findings indicated that the mentors and mentees perceived an increase in social connections and skill development as a result of the program. Additionally, mentors and general education students differed in their perceptions of individuals with disabilities and views of the program. Findings support previous research that indicates that inclusive peer mentoring programs can influence relational and skill-based outcomes for students involved in the program, in addition to mentors’ perceptions of individuals with disabilities.
NDSU Faculty Turnover Study
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Benz, Rachel Ann
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the reasons behind faculty turnover from North Dakota State University (NDSU). A list of 45 faculty members who left NDSU between May of 2008 and March of2010 was gathered from the NDSU Office of Equity, Diversity, and Global Relations. Potential participants were contacted with 20 completing phone interviews for this study. Interview questions sought to explore the reasons for faculty member departure, the impact of university policies/procedures on faculty, the NDSU working experience, and comparisons between their former NDSU positions and their current position. Six themes emerged as to why faculty members departed from NDSU. These themes included (I) campus climate, (2) lack of advancement/professional opportunities, (3) position requirement challenges, ( 4) weather/geographical location, (5) family reasons, and (6) salary. Patterns in turnover between STEM/non-STEM disciplines were explored. Gender differences emerged in participant responses in regard to campus climate, mentoring, salary, community climate, and experiences of non-STEM female participants at NDSU. Recommendations for future research, limitations of this study, and implications for practice at NDSU are discussed.
Perceptions of Negative Attributes of Never-Married Custodial Mothers and Fathers: A Comparison Study
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Haire, Amanda Rae
The present study examined the differences in the perceptions of the negative attributes of never-married custodial single mothers and fathers. The existing literature indicated that never-married single mothers and fathers were perceived differently; however, no previous study has examined perceptions of negative qualities that society assigns to never-married custodial single mothers and fathers. Thus, this study examined participants' perceptions of the negative attributes of never-married custodial single mothers and fathers and applied a feminist framework to determine what gender based differences existed in these perceptions. The results of the thematic analysis suggested that participants' perceptions of never-married single mothers and fathers' negative attributes varied primarily by gender of the single parent. Moreover, the results of the thematic analysis also suggested that participants' perceptions of the negative attributes of single mothers are primarily personal in nature while the perceptions of single fathers are situational. The results further suggest that participants' perceptions focused on the composition of a healthy family as well as reflected negative beliefs about single mothers' sexuality and not single fathers'. Suggestions for future research and clinical implications are also offered.
Preparing for the "Silver Tsunami": Grand Forks Analyzes Recreational Opportunities and Challenges for an Aging Baby Boomer Generation.
(North Dakota State University, 2010) lseminger, Colette Kim
The purpose of this study was to explore differences in the recreation areas of lifelong learning, intergenerational programs, fitness and exercise, art and culture programs, and the ability to stay up-to-date with technology between the current senior citizen generations and the aging baby boomer generation. Survey questionnaires were administered to 49 respondents of the baby boomer generation and 66 respondents of the current senior citizen generations. Results of the survey showed a strong negative correlation between age and the person's self-proclaimed need for the recreation areas studied. The baby boomers of Grand Forks, for the most part, are similar to the national cohort in their wants and needs in these five recreation areas.
Parents' Relationship, Differing Parenting Styles and the Effects on their Children
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Kasson, Ashley Ann
The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of parenting practices, the impact of differing parenting practices, and how gender of the parent and child impact child outcomes. The sample for this study was taken from parents whose children are participating in the Early Risers Program. These parents completed two questionnaires. Parental involvement, communication, and discipline scales were the focus of these questionnaires. To assess the child's strengths, parents also reported on their child's interpersonal strength, family involvement, intrapersonal strength, affective strength, and school functioning. This study examines how the gender of a parent and the differing parenting styles between partners affects a child's development. Specifically, it was expected that the same-sex parent of a child has more influence on a child than the opposite-sex parent, and mixed parenting styles will affect the development of a child differently than parents parenting with similar parenting practices. The results show that same-sex parents have more influence over certain child outcomes. No significance was found for the influences of differing parenting practices on a child's outcome. The study provides a closer look at the influences of gender and parenting practices on child outcomes and compares whether parents' distress level or differential parenting styles among partners has more influence over child outcomes.
Finding a Home for Spirituality in Couple and Family Therapy Training: An Analysis of CFT Educators' Strategies and Methods For Integrating Spirituality Into the CFT Curriculum
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Kekic, Jana
The purpose of this study was to analyze the specific ways that couple and family therapy (CFT) faculty members integrate content on spirituality into the courses they teach. The study used an existing data set consisting of 93 CFT faculty members who taught in accredited master's and/or doctoral level CFT programs of which 47 were male and 46 were female. The participants completed an electronic survey for this study. The predominant religious or spiritual affiliation within the sample was Christian. The results of this study suggested that many participants were following recommendations from the literature on ways to integrate topics of spirituality into the teaching and supervision of CFT students. However, the results of this study also indicated that infusion of spirituality into the curricula is an idea worthy of further exploration in the research.
Women's Sexual Attitudes, Body Image, and Sexual Activity: A Mediation Analysis
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Lerner, Jessica Lynne
Currently, an increasing number of women report sexual difficulties, and previous research has shown that both sexual attitudes and body image have a significant impact on women's sexual activity. While previous studies measured the influence of sexual attitudes and body image separately on sexual activity, the present study instead used mediational analyses to determine the direction of effects that sexual attitudes and body image have on sexual activity. Online surveys were administered to 401 emerging adult undergraduate and graduate female students. The surveys included self-report measures of conservative versus liberal sexual attitudes, body image, and frequency of sexual activity. Results indicated that liberal sexual attitudes predicted greater sexual activity. While mediation was not evident, indirect effects existed such that more liberal sexual attitudes led to higher body image which, in turn, led to increased sexual activity. Results also indicated that higher body image satisfaction predicted greater sexual activity. Evidence of partial mediation suggested that body image satisfaction led to more liberal sexual attitudes which, in turn, led to increased sexual activity. Although body image and sexual attitudes are both important factors that affect sexual activity, each influence alone is not enough to explain the complex cognitive process that leads to decisions regarding sexual activity. Therefore, prevention and intervention work for sexual difficulties should focus on how both factors work together to influence women's sexual experiences with a vigilant focus on reducing the effects of women's body and sexual objectification as one step toward improving their overall health and well-being in family, couple, or dating contexts.
An Exploration of the Relationship between College Women's Self-Reported Religiosity and Sexuality
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Meyhuber, Karisa Jo
This study explored how female college students' religiosity varied according to their sexual behavior and attitudes. However, research is limited to showing that never-married female college students who have a high degree of religious commitment are less likely to engage in sexual intercourse without being in a committed relationship (Beckwith & Morrow, 2005; Earle et al., 2007; Jessor & Jessor, 1975; Mahoney, 1980; Meier, 2003; Robinson & Calhoun, 1983; Thornton & Camburn, 1989). Four hundred fifty-one emerging adult female college students from a Midwestern university participated in this study, ranging in age from 18 to 25 years old. Participants for the larger study completed an online survey which asked for demographic information, sexual activity, sexual attitudes, body image, and religiosity. An independent sample t-test was used to test whether there was a statistical difference in religiosity between ( 1) participants who are or have been sexually active, and (2) those who have not engaged in sexual activity. An independent samples t-test was also used to test for statistical difference in religiosity between the types of sexual activity ( e.g., anal sex, oral sex, and mutual masturbation) participants considered to be "sex." It was found that women who did not engage in sexual activity were more religious than those who engaged in sexual activity. Participants who believed oral sex or mutual masturbation were sex did not differ significantly in religion; however, women who did not consider anal sex to be sex were more religious while those who did consider it to be sex were less religious. Religiosity and sexuality issues should be addressed in therapy with this population in order to better understand the roles they play in regards to self views and developing relationships.
Post Collegiate Preparedness of Graduating College Seniors at North Dakota State University
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Onken, Joshua Dean
The purpose of this study was to gain new insight on the preparedness for postcollegiate life of graduating college seniors who are living or have lived on-campus in the residence halls in comparison to those who have moved off-campus or have never lived oncampus at North Dakota State University. An independent survey instrument was developed to assess post-collegiate preparedness for three key student outcomes: self-awareness and interpersonal sensitivity, citizenship, and life skills management. A comparison was made between the data collected from participating graduating seniors who live on-campus to that of the data collected from participating graduating seniors who live off-campus to determine the level of preparedness for post-collegiate life of each group. Additionally, a comparison was made between data collected from participating graduating seniors who have lived oncampus to that of data collected from participating seniors who have never lived oncampus. Results comparing students living on-campus vs. off-campus showed differences in the areas of curiosity, student leadership, and employment while attending college. Results comparing students who have lived on-campus vs. never lived on-campus showed differences in the areas of leadership, campus involvement, and post-graduation employment.
Diversity and Social Justice in Couple and Family Therapy Training: An Evaluation of Accredited Programs
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Ostrom, Angela Lynn
Over the past 15 years, the literature in the field of couple and family therapy (CFT) has called for training programs to make issues of social justice a central concern in the training of couple and family therapists (Guanipa, 2003; Laszloffy & Hardy, 2000; Leslie & McDowell, 2004; McGeorge, Carlson, Erickson, & Guttormson, 2006). During that time the Commission on Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education (COAMFTE) made several changes to the accreditation standards that required programs to integrate social justice principles and practices into CFT training. Recently, however, the COAMFTE removed many of these social justice requirements from its most current accreditation standards. Most notably, programs are now able to create their own definitions of diversity in addition to their own benchmarks for achieving diversity. The purpose of this study was to examine how CFT programs are currently defining diversity and whether or not those definitions are consistent with the current feminist and social justice training literature. Nineteen participants from different accredited CFT programs participated in the study. The results demonstrated inconsistency in the ways that programs define diversity and an overall lack of measureable benchmarks for achieving diversity.
Social Perceptions of Adolescents Based on Height and Facial Maturity
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Pforr, Elise Marie
This study explored the influence of adolescent height and facial maturity on adult social perceptions of their competence. A sample of95 college students completed questionnaires rating the competence level of target adolescents based on manipulated full-body images of the targets. Findings indicate that height significantly contributed to social perceptions of adolescents; however, facial maturity did not. Furthermore, when physical characteristics were concordant, tall mature-faced adolescents were perceived as more competent than short baby-faced adolescents. When physical characteristics were discordant (tall with a baby face and short with a mature face), competence ratings were not significantly different. The limitations of this study and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Parents Forever: An Assessment of a Brief Divorce Education Program
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Rittenbach, Christina Marie
Parents Forever: Education for Families in Divorce Transition is a four-hour divorce education program that is directed toward educating adults about separation, divorce, and the effects on children. While some pilot evaluations have been conducted on this program, there is still limited information regarding its effectiveness (Dworkin & Karahan, 2005). This study addressed the effects of the program for parents or caregivers who are undergoing separation or divorce. The study assessed how individuals perceived the program and its influence on their knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. At the conclusion of the four-hour session, the program facilitators distributed the first retrospective questionnaire and asked the attendees to participate and answer the questions to the best of their ability. If the participants chose to continue in the study, they were sent the follow-up questionnaire in the mail approximately six weeks after completing the program. Gathering data six weeks after course completion provided information about the short-term effects of the program. Results indicated that participants perceived the program to be valuable and beneficial, and they felt the program helped them increase their knowledge on the topics covered in the workshop, as well as positively change their behavior towards their children and former partners.
An Exploration of the Relationship Among Community Norms, Identification with Community, and Prosocial Behavior
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Rust, Courtney Lynn
Proponents of social identity theory assert that individuals are motivated to behave in ways consistent with the norms of the social groups in which they belong. The goal of the study was to test the relationship between group norms, specifically residential groups and religious groups, and prosocial behavior. The linkages between participants' degree of identification with their current community, perceived encouragement of prosocial behavior by the community, and self-reports of prosocial behavior were examined. Based on previous research on social identity theory and the role of prosocial behavior norms in religious communities (Saraglou, Pichon, Trompette, Verschueren, & Demelle, 2005; Y ouniss, McLellan, & Yates, 1999), it was hypothesized that participants who rated religion as more important would report higher levels of pro social behavior than participants who rated religion as less important. It was also hypothesized that participants who identified strongly with their community and resided in a community that supported pro social behavior would report higher levels of pro social behavior than those who did not identify strongly with their community and/or those whose community did not support prosocial behavior. Women reported higher levels of prosocial behavior than did men. There was not a significant association between the importance of religion and individual prosocial behavior. At the bivariate level, there were significant positive correlations among the perception that the community encouraged prosocial behavior, identification with the community, and the individual's self-reported level of prosocial behavior. A multiple regression analysis showed that only identification with the community significantly predicted prosocial behavior, and there was no interaction between community encouragement of prosocial behavior and identification with the community. Explanations for findings and directions for future research are discussed.
Effect of Perceived Friend Intervention on Individual-level Bullying and Intervention
(North Dakota State University, 2010) Serdiouk, Marina
The main aim of this study was to examine the relation between perceived friend intervention and individual-level bullying and intervention. The mediating role of beliefs about aggression and attitudes toward victims was also investigated. One hundred eighteen students (49 boys and 69 girls) in grades 6 to 8 completed a questionnaire that included items measuring bullying, intervention, beliefs about aggression, and attitudes toward victims. The results of the multilevel analysis revealed that children in friendship groups with low levels of perceived friend intervention were less likely to intervene, but were not more likely to bully. Attitudes toward victims and normative beliefs about aggression did not mediate a relation between perceived friend intervention and individual intervention and bullying. Self-reported bullying had a moderate negative correlation with positive attitudes toward victims and a positive correlation with beliefs about aggression. Propensity to intervene had a moderate positive correlation with positive attitudes toward victims and a small negative correlation with positive beliefs about aggression. Although the mediation model tested in the current study was not supported, this study provides a foundation for studying group-level processes that may influence children's intervention in bullying situations.
Referring Clients Based Solely on Sexual Orientation: An Exploration of the Role of Homophobia and Clinical Competence
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Farrell, Molly Teresa
The purpose cf this study was to explore how homophobia and clinical competence influence experienced clinicians' beliefs and practices regarding referring a LGB client based solely on the sexual orientation of the client. The data for this study came from a larger study with a sample of 741 experienced clinicians who were all members of the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT). Participants were contacted through email and if they chose to participate they completed the survey on-line. There were two measures used for this study, 1) the combined Modem Homophobia Scale (MHS); (Raja & Stokes, 1998) and 2) the combined knowledge/skill subscale from the Revised-Sexual Orientation Counselor Competency Scale (R-SOCCS); (Bidell, 2005; Carlson, McGeorge, & Toomey, in press) as well as two yes/no questions about referring LGB clients. The results of this study indicated that therapists who have referred a LGB client based solely on the client's sexual orientation had higher levels of homophobia than those who had never referred a LGB client based solely on the client's sexual orientation. Clinicians' level of clinical competence to work with LGB clients did not appear to influence their beliefs about the ethical nature or practices of referring a LGB client based solely on the client's sexual orientation. Furthermore, many therapists in this study believe it should be ethical to refer a client based solely on the sexual orientation of the client, though most of them had not actually made such a referral. The AAMFT Code of Ethics is discussed throughout this thesis in order to explore the ethical issues related to referring a client based solely on the client's sexual orientation. This study provides important implications for therapists, couple and family therapy training programs, as well as the AAMFT regarding the ethical nature of the practice of referring a LGB client based solely on the client's sexual orientation.
The Influence of Fathers on Adolescent Boys' and Girls' Disordered Eating
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Bulat, Amanda Emily
Because eating disorders and body dissatisfaction are significant problems in adolescence, it is important to study the sociocultural influences that may be associated with these attitudes and behaviors. Researchers have been thorough in studying maternal influences on adolescents' disordered eating attitudes and behaviors; however, fathers have not been examined in sufficient detail as to their potential influence on the development of such issues. This study explored the role fathers play in the development of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors among middle-school aged boys and girls. In particular, this study sought to find out how fathers' own dieting behaviors, teasing behaviors, feedback regarding weight, and encouragement to lose weight (e.g., actively promoting weight loss or persuasion to lose weight, regardless of whether or not the adolescent was at a healthy body weight) affected disordered eating in adolescent males and females. Self-report questionnaires were collected from 62 girls and 63 boys, who were in seventh to ninth grades. We used independent sample t-tests to examine gender differences, Pearson correlations to examine associations among fathers' behaviors and adolescents' disordered eating, and multiple regression analyses to examine which father behaviors most influenced adolescents' disordered eating. Although boys received slightly more encouragement to lose weight and feedback about appearance from fathers, and girls reported slightly more teasing and father engagement in dieting behaviors, none of these differences were statistically significant. Fathers' encouragement to lose weight was significantly related to both females' and males' disordered eating. Fathers' feedback about weight was significantly related to females' disordered eating, whereas teasing behaviors were significantly related to males' disordered eating. Both girls and boys were most influenced by fathers' encouragement to lose weight, when compared to other paternal behaviors. It is vital that fathers are included in the discussion, education, and research surrounding adolescents' disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. As suggested in this study, it is essential for researchers, clinicians, and educators to be aware of fathers' influence on adolescents' disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. By discussing the vital role that fathers play in their adolescents' lives, more open communication and knowledge can be uncovered to allow for future efforts in preventing disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in adolescents.
Gender Influences on Perceptions of Marital Reconciliation
(North Dakota State University, 2011) Hanten, Allyson Rachel
This study examines the process of marital reconciliation. More specifically, it addresses gender influences regarding perceptions of the marital reconciliation process. Also, this study identifies how turning points in the process of marital reconciliation are similar and different between the partners in the marital dyad. A qualitative methodology was used to better understand gender similarities and differences in marital reconciliation. Interviews with six married couples, 11 participants total, were conducted for this study. This study allows for a better understanding of male and female perspectives related to potential threats to marital stability and processes that help couples resolve relationship difficulties or challenges.
The Impact of Social Media Body Challenges on Youths' Body Image
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Leonard, Kerrie Caitlin
Body challenges are an unresearched trend where an individual checks if their body can look a certain way to pass the specific challenge (e.g., the A4 paper challenge; seeing if one’s waist is smaller than an 8x11 vertical piece of paper). We asked 147 girls and gender-expansive youth open-ended questions about trying a body challenge, opinions, and feelings towards their body as a result of these challenges. Qualitative analyses revealed that 79.59% of youth have never tried a body challenge. Youth thought body challenges were negative, with themes of toxic, ridiculous, unhealthy, anti-feminist/social commentary, and the need for body positivity. Also, many youth (50.35%) reported negative feelings towards their bodies as a result of body challenges, with themes of bad, inadequate, insecure/self-conscious, and fat. Many youth felt no impact (34.04%). Understanding body challenges can help create strategies so that youth can be resilient to their harms.
Peer Acceptance and Motivation as Mediators of the Relationships between Students' Social Skills and Academics
(North Dakota State University, 2021) Carlson, Shawn Leslie
Primary goals of early elementary school are to teach children academic knowledge in reading and math. During this time, children also continue to develop their social skills, which can be learned from interactions with their peers. Several studies have shown a positive relationship between children’s social skills and academic achievement; however, the mechanisms through which this relationship occurs is not well known. Two possible mechanisms are peer acceptance and academic motivation. The current study examines the relationship between social skills and academic competencies over time and tests peer acceptance and academic motivation as sequential mediators of the relationship. Participants were 190 early elementary school students. Children’s social skills were found to be a significant predictor of math and reading competencies over time. Results also indicated significant indirect effects linking socials skills to academic competence through the mediators of peer acceptance and academic motivation in models for both math and reading.

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